https://www.mrcorfe.com/Hamble/MCQ
9th Sep '25
Multiple Choice 2015-16
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What is the basic structure of plant and animal (eukaryotic) cells?
Plant and animal cells (eukaryotic cells) have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material enclosed in a nucleus.
Plant and animal cells (eukaryotic cells) have a cell membrane, cytoplasm and genetic material enclosed in a nucleus.
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What is the structure of a bacterial cell?
Bacteria have cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Bacteria have cytoplasm and a cell membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
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What is the order of magnitude of an ant, DNA, red blood cell, carbon atom and bacterial cell?
The order of magnitude of an ant, DNA, red blood cell, carbon atom and bacterial cell is as follows: ant > red blood cell > bacterium > DNA > carbon atom.
Students should be able to demonstrate an understanding of the scale and size of cells and be able to make order of magnitude calculations, including the use of standard form.
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Are bacterial (prokaryotic) cells bigger or smaller than eukaryotic cells?
Bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) are much smaller in comparison to eukaryotic cells.
Bacterial cells (prokaryotic cells) are much smaller in comparison.
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What is unique about the DNA in a bacterial cell?
In bacteria the genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus. It is a single DNA loop and there may be one or more small rings of DNA called plasmids.
In bacteria the genetic material is not enclosed in a nucleus. It is a single DNA loop and there may be one or more small rings of DNA called plasmids.
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What sub-celluar structures are found in most animal cells?
Most animal cells have the following parts: a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes.
Most animal cells have the following parts: - a nucleus - cytoplasm - a cell membrane - mitochondria - ribosomes.
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What additional sub-celluar structures do plant cells often have?
In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have: chloroplasts, permanent vacuole filled with cell sap, cell wall.
In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have: - chloroplasts - a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap - cell wall
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What are plant and algal cell walls made of to strengthen the cell?
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which strengthens the cell.
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which strengthens the cell.
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How are each of the following sub-ceullular structures related to their functions: nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, and plasmids (bacterial cells)?
Nuclues - controls activities of the cell, contains DNA. Cytoplasm - site of chemical reactions, liquid for substances to diffuse/move. Cell membrane - controls movement of substances in and out of cells, partially permeable mebrane. Mitochondria - site of respiration, large surface area to volume ratio from folds. Chloroplasts - site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll to absorb light energy. Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis, they are very small. Plasmids - single loops of DNA, control activity of the cell.
Students should be able to explain how the main sub-cellular structures, including the nucleus, cell membranes, mitochondria, chloroplasts in plant cells and plasmids in bacterial cells are related to their functions.
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What is the estimated size of an ant, the diameter of a hair, the length of a leaf cell, the size of a red blood cell, the length of bacterium, the size of a virus, the diameter of DNA and the size of a carbon atom.
The estimated size of an ant 3mm, the diameter of a hair 100um, the length of a leaf cell 70um, the size of a red blood cell 7um, the length of bacterium 1um, the size of a virus 100nm, the diameter of DNA 2.5nm and the size of a carbon atom 0.34nm.
Students should be able to use estimations and explain when they should be used to judge the relative size or area of sub-cellular structures.
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What are the names of specialised cells in animals?
ells may be specialised to carry out a particular function: sperm cells, nerve cells and muscle cells in animals.
Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function: sperm cells, nerve cells and muscle cells in animals.
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How are nerve cells specialised for their function?
Nerve cells have a long shape can conduct electricity so the can send messages between places in the body.
Nerve cells have a long shape can conduct electricity so the can send messages between places in the body.
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How are muscle cells specialised for their function?
Muscle cells have: - a long shape so they can contract causing movement - lots of mitochondria to gain enough energy through respiration.
Muscle cells have: - a long shape so they can contract causing movement - lots of mitochondria to gain enough energy through respiration.
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How are sperm cells specialised for their function?
Sperm cells have: - a pointed head to be streamlined and to poke into the egg cell - tail to swim - lots of mitrocondria to generate the energy to swim.
Sperm cells have: - a pointed head to be streamlined and to poke into the egg cell - tail to swim - lots of mitrocondria to generate the energy to swim.
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What are the names of specialised cells in plants?
Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function: root hair cells, xylem and phloem cells in plants.
Cells may be specialised to carry out a particular function: root hair cells, xylem and phloem cells in plants.
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How are root hair cells specialised for their function?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients.
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients.
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How are xylem cells specialised for their function?
Xylem cells in plants have: - no cytoplasm or other organelles, - no cell walls on the end, so they form a tube - cell walls strengthened with waterproof lignin To: - transport water around the plant - to strengthen the plant
Xylem cells in plants have: - no cytoplasm or other organelles, - no cell walls on the end, so they form a tube - cell walls strengthened with waterproof lignin To: - transport water around the plant - to strengthen the plant
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How are Phloem cells specialised for their function?
Phloem cells in plants have: - no cytoplasm or other organelles, - open ends with sieve plates between cells To: - transport 'phood' around the plant
Phloem cells in plants have: - no cytoplasm or other organelles, - open ends with sieve plates between cells To: - transport 'phood' around the plant
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How has microscopy developedi over time?
More powerful, better quality light microscopes, and then electron microscopes.
Students should be able to understand how microscopy techniques have developed over time
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What impact has the development of the electron microscope had on our knowledge of cells?
Electron microscopes can be used to study cells in much finer detail. This has enabled biologists to see and understand many more sub-cellular structures.
This means that electron microscopes can be used to study cells in much finer detail. This has enabled biologists to see and understand many more sub-cellular structures.
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How has electron microscopy been able to increase our understanding of sub-cellular structures?
Electron microscopes have a magnification of up to x1,000,000 and resolution of up to 0.2nm.
Students should be able to explain how electron microscopy has increased understanding of sub-cellular structures. Limited to the differences in magnification and resolution.
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Why is an electron microscope better than a light microscope?
An electron microscope has much higher magnification and resolving power than a light microscope.
An electron microscope has much higher magnification and resolving power than a light microscope.
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How is the magnification equation re-arranged to calculate real size and image size?
real size = magnification / size of image size of image = magnification / real size
Students should be able to carry out calculations involving magnification, real size and image size using the formula: magnification = size of image x size of real object * Use prefixes centi, milli, micro and nano.
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What is the relationship between the prefixes centi, milli, micro and nano?
Milli is 10^-3 of a metre, centi is 10^-2 of a metre, micro is 10^-6 of a metre and nano is 10^-9 of a metre.
Students should be able to use prefixes centi, milli, micro and nano.
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How do you represent the size of a cell measuring 0.006cm using standard form?
6 x 10 to the power -3 cm.
Students should be able to express answers in standard form if appropriate
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Required Practical 1 - Microscopy (AT Skills 1,7)
Required Practical 1 - Microscopy (AT skills 1,7)
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(Biology only) Required Practical 2 - Microbiology (Biology only) (AT Skills 1,3,4,8)
(Biology only) Required Practical 2 - Microbiology (Biology only) (AT skills 1,3,4,8)
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(Biology only) How do bacteria divide?
(Biology only) Bacteria divide by binary fission as often as once every 20 minutes.
(Biology only) Bacteria multiply by simple cell division (binary fission) as often as once every 20 minutes if they have enough nutrients and a suitable temperature.
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(Biology only) When investigating the growth of bacteria, in what two ways can they be grown?
(Biology only) Bacteria are grown in a nutrient broth solution or as colonies on an agar gel plate.
(Biology only) Bacteria can be grown in a nutrient broth solution or as colonies on an agar gel plate.
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(Biology only) What is special about the culture of organisms required when investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics?
(Biology only) Uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms are required for investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics.
(Biology only) Uncontaminated cultures of microorganisms are required for investigating the action of disinfectants and antibiotics.
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(Biology only) How is an uncontaminated culture of microgransims prepared?
(Biology only) An uncontaminated culture is prepared using an aseptic technique.
(Biology only) Students should be able to describe how to prepare an uncontaminated culture using aseptic technique.
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(Biology only) Why are petri dishes and culture media sterilised before use?
(Biology only) Petri dishes and culture media are sterilised before use to avoid contamination; it removes any existing microbes.
(Biology only) They should be able to explain why petri dishes and culture media must be sterilised before use
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(Biology only) Why are inoculating loops, used to transfer microorganisms to media, passed through a flame?
(Biology only) Inoculating loops, used to transfer microorganisms to the media, must be passed through a flame to sterilise them; it removes any existing microbes.
(Biology only) They should be able to explain why inoculating loops used to transfer microorganisms to the media must be sterilised by passing them through a flame
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(Biology only) Why should the lid of the Petri dish should be secured with adhesive tape and stored upside down?
(Biology only) The lid of the Petri dish should be secured with adhesive tape and stored upside down to prevent microbes from the air contaminating the culture and prevent microbes from the culture escaping. They are placed upside down to prevent condensation forming on the lid which could drip onto the agar and contaminate the culture.
(Biology only) They should be able to explain why the lid of the Petri dish should be secured with adhesive tape and stored upside down
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(Biology only) Why should cultures be incubated at 25oC in school laboratories?
(Biology only) Cultures are incubated at 25oC in school laboratories as it greatly reduces the chances of growing pathogens that are harmful to people at temperatures greater than 25oC.
(Biology only) They should be able to explain why in school laboratories, cultures should generally be incubated at 25?C.
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(Biology only) How would the cross-sectional areas of colonies or clear areas around colonies be calculated? How can this be used to calculate the cross-sectional area for a radius of 0.25 mm?
(Biology only) Cross-sectional areas of colonies or clear areas around colonies are calculated using 'pie-r-squared'. For a cross-sectional area with radius 0.25mm: 3.14 x (0.25-squared) = 0.20mm (2d.p.)
(Biology only) Students should be able to calculate cross-sectional areas of colonies or clear areas around colonies using πr².
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(Biology only) How is the number of bacteria in a population calculated after a certain time if given the mean division time?
(Biology only) 2 to the power of the number of generations x initial number of bacteria.
(Biology only) Students should be able to calculate the number of bacteria in a population after a certain time if given the mean division time.
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(Biology only) What is the population of bacteria, which have a mean division time of 5-minutes, after 45-minutes if starting with just 5 bacteria? How would this answer be shown using standard form?
(Biology only) The population of bacteria, which have a mean division time of 5-minutes, after 45-minutes if starting with just 5 bacteria is: 45 divided by 5 = 9, so 2 to the power of 9 multiplied by 5 = 2560 bacteria. In standard form this is written as: 2.56 x 10 to the power 3 bacteria.
(Biology only) Students should be able to express the answer in standard form.
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What is contained in the cell nucleus?
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA molecules
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA molecules.
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What is a chromosome made up of?
Each chromosome carries a large number of genes
Each chromosome carries a large number of genes.
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How are chromosomes normally found in body cells?
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs.
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs.
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What is a cell cycle?
Where cells divide in a series of stages
Cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle.
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What happens during the cell cycle?
During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then divided into two identical cells.
During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then divided into two identical cells.
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What must happen before a cell divides?
Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome.
Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome.
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in mitosis what happens after DNA has been replicated?
In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides.
In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides.
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In mitosis how many cells are produced and how could you describe them?
Two - identical daughter cells
Finally the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two identical cells.
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What are the three main stages of a cell cycle during mitosis?
1. Replication of DNA 2. DNA divides 3. Two cells formed
Students need to understand the three overall stages of the cell cycle but do not need to know the different phases of the mitosis stage.
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Why is cell division by mitosis important in multicellular organisms?
For growth and development
Cell division by mitosis is important in the growth and development of multicellular organisms.
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A human cell has 46 pairs of choromsomes what stage of mitosis is in it?
First stage - replication of DNA (Prophase)
Students should be able to recognise and describe situations in given contexts where mitosis is occurring.
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What are the other risk factors apart from lifestyle risk factors?
There are also genetic risk factors for some cancers.
There are also genetic risk factors for some cancers.
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In terms of cells what is cancer?
Cancer is the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division.
Students should be able to describe cancer as the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division.
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What are benign tumours?
Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane.
Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane.
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Can benign tumours cause cancer to spread around the body?
No, benign tumours do not invade other parts of the body.
Benign tumours do not invade other parts of the body.
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What are malignant tumours?
Malignant tumour cells are cancers.
Malignant tumour cells are cancers.
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How do malignant tumours form secondary tumours?
Malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues and spread to different parts of the body in the blood where they form secondary tumours.
Malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues and spread to different parts of the body in the blood where they form secondary tumours.
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What are the main risk factors for various types of cancer?
The lifestyle risk factors for cancer can include, smoking, drinking alcohol, obesity and excessive exposure to sunlight.
Scientists have identified lifestyle risk factors for various types of cancer.
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At what stage of an animal cell's life cycle does it differentiate?
Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage.
Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage.
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What happens during cell differentiation when an organism develops?
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells.
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells.
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What happens to a cell during differentiation to become a specialised cell?
As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular structures to enable it to carry out a certain function. It has become a specialised cell.
As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular structures to enable it to carry out a certain function. It has become a specialised cell.
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Why is cell differentiation important?
Cell differentiation is important because it causes cells to become adapted for a particular function. This makes the cell specialised.
Students should be able to explain the importance of cell differentiation.
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In mature animals, what is cell division mainly used for?
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement.
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What is a stem cell?
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type, and from which certain other cells can arise from differentiation.
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type, and from which certain other cells can arise from differentiation.
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What is the function of stem cells in human embryos?
Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to differentiate into most different types of human cells
Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to differentiate into most different types of human cells.
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What type of cells can be produced from bone marrow stem cells?
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells including blood cells
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells including blood cells.
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What conditions are stem cells used to treat?
Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and paralysis.
Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and paralysis.
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What is produced in therapeutic cloning?
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient.
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient.
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Why can stem cells from embryos useful in medical treatment?
Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the patient?s body so they may be used for medical treatment.
Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the patient?s body so they may be used for medical treatment.
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What are the dangers of using stem cells for treatment?
The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral infection
The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral infection, and some people have ethical or religious objections.
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What are the ethical issues surrounding the use of stem cells?
harm/death to embyro, un natural, un godly
(WS) Evaluate the practical risks and benefits, as well as social and ethical issues, of the use of stem cells in medical research and treatments.
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What is the function of stem cells in meristem tissues in plants?
Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell, throughout the life of the plant.
Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell, throughout the life of the plant.
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What are the advantages of using stem cells from meristems in plants?
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones of plants quickly and economically.
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones of plants quickly and economically.
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How can stem cells be used to ensure biodiversity?
Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.
Stem cells from meristems in plants are used. Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.
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How can farmers benefit from the use of stem cells from meristems?
Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers.
Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers.
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How do substances move in and out of cells?
diffusion
Substances may move into and out of cells across the cell membranes via diffusion.
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What is the definition for diffusion?
Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
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Name two substances that are transported in and out of cells by diffusion during gas exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide
Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion are oxygen and carbon dioxide in gas exchange.
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How does the waste product urea reach the kidney to be excreted?
Urea diffuses from cells into the blood plasma to reach the kidney for excretion
Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion are the waste product urea from cells into the blood plasma for excretion in the kidney.
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How does the concentration gradient affec the rate of diffusion?
The bigger the concentration gradient the faster the rate of diffusion will be
Explain how the difference in concentrations (concentration gradient) affect the rate of diffusion.
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How does the difference in temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
The higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion
Explain how the difference in the temperature affect the rate of diffusion.
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How does the surface area of the membrane affect the rate of diffusion?
The bigger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion will be
Explain how the surface area of the membrane affect the rate of diffusion.
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What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
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What are the important things to include in a diagram that shows osmosis?
Partially-permeable membrane, concentration of water and of sugar, arrows to show the net movement of water
(WS) Recognise, draw and interpret diagrams that model osmosis.
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How do you calculate the rate of water uptake?
amount of water / time taken
(MS) Students should be able to: ? use simple compound measures of rate of water uptake
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How do you calculate a percentage?
(thing you are interested in / total amount ) x 100
? use percentages
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How do you calculate the percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue?
((end mass - start mass) / start mass )) x 100
? calculate percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue.
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What marking points are important to consider when plotting, drawing and interpreting graphs?
(MS) Students should be able to plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs.
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What is the name of the process in which water moves across cell membranes?
Osmosis
Water may move across cell membranes via osmosis.
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What is the surface area to volume ratio of a single-celled organism like?
A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume ratio.
A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume ratio.
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How does having a large surface area to volume ratio help cells?
Having a large surface area to volume allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of the cell to meet the needs of the organism.
Having a large surface area to volume allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of the cell to meet the needs of the organism.
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How do you calculate surface area to volume ratios?
volume = width x height x bredth area = width x height display as a ratio
Students should be able to calculate and compare surface area to volume ratios. (MS)
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Why do simple organisms need exchange surfaces?
To allow for diffuse of substances in and out. They have high surface area to volume ratio to increase the rate of this.
Students should be able to explain the need for exchange surfaces in terms of surface area to volume ratio.
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Why do multicelluar organisms need transport systems?
Too complex for simple diffusion across a membrane so transport systems are needed to deliver substances to target organs/tissues.
Students should be able to explain why multicellular organisms have transport systems in terms of surface area to volume ration
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How are the small intestine and lungs in mammals adapted for exchanging materials?
Lungs have a large surface area to volume ratio due to the structure of alveloi Small intestines have villi to increase their surface to volume ratio
Students should be able to explain how the small intestine and lungs in mammals are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are the gills in fish are adapted for exchanging materials?
Gills have a large surface area, partially permable membrane.
Students should be able to explain how the gills in fish are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are leaves in plants adapted for exchanging materials?
Leaves have guard cells and spongy mesophyl with gaps
Students should be able to explain how the leaves in plants are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are multicellular organisms adapted for exchanging materials?
Multicellular organisms have specalised surfaces and organ systems
In multicellular organisms, surfaces and organ systems are specialised for exchanging materials.
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How do organisms get substances they need in and out of cells?
Specalised surfaces allow sufficient molecules to be transported into and out of cells for the organism?s needs.
Specalised surfaces allow sufficient molecules to be transported into and out of cells for the organism?s needs.
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How can the effectiveness of an exchange surface be increased?
The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by: ? having a large surface area ? a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path ? (in animals) having an efficient blood supply ? (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated.
The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by: ? having a large surface area ? a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path ? (in animals) having an efficient blood supply ? (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated.
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What is active transport?
Active transport is a process that moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient).
Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient).
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Does active transport require energy?
Active transport requires energy from respiration.
Active transport requires energy from respiration.
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How does active transport allow plants to absorb esstential ions from soil?
Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil.
Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil.
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Why do plants require ions from the soil?
Plants require ions for healthy growth.
Plants require ions for healthy growth.
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How does active transport allow sugar to move from the gut into the blood when it has a higher sugar concentration?
Active transport also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower concentrations in the gut into the blood which has a higher sugar concentration.
Active transport also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower concentrations in the gut into the blood which has a higher sugar concentration.
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Why is sugar esstential to cells of living things?
Sugar is esstential to cells of living things as it is used for cell respiration
Sugar molecules are used for cell respiration.
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What are the three ways that substances can enter and leave cells?
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Students should be able to describe how substances are transported into and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
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What are the differences between diffusion, osmosis and active transport?
Diffusion is the spreading out of particles down a concentration gradient with/without a partially permeable membrane. Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high concentration to a low concentration solution across a partially permeable membrane. Active transport is the movement of ions in solution across a partially permeable membrane through carrier proteins, this requires energy
students should be able to explain the differences between the three processes.
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What are the basic building blocks of living organisms?
The basic building blocks of living organisms are called cells
Cells are the basic building blocks of all living organisms.
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What is a tissue?
A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
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What are organs?
Organs are aggregations of tissues performing specific functions.
Organs are aggregations of tissues performing specific functions.
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What are organ systems?
Organs are organised into organ systems, which work together to form organisms.
Organs are organised into organ systems, which work together to form organisms.
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What is the order, from smallest to largest, of organs, organ systems, cells and tissues?
The cellular organisation is: Cells, tissues, organs and organ systems.
Students should be able to develop an understanding of size and scale in relation to cells, tissues, organs and systems.
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Why is the digestive system an example of an organ system?
The digestive system is an example of an organ system as it has several organs working together.
The digestive system is an example of an organ system in which several organs work together to digest and absorb food.
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How do enzymes relate to metabolism?
Enzymes relate to metabolism as they help in the digestion of food.
Students should be able to relate knowledge of enzymes to Metabolism.
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What are the products of digestion used for?
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins as well as glucose being used for respiration.
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Some glucose is used in respiration.
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Where is bile made and stored?
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
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What does bile do with the stomach acid?
Bile neutralises stomach acid.
[Bile] is alkaline to neutralise hydrochloric acid from the stomach.
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What does bile do with fats?
Bile emulsifies fats to form small droplets to increase the surface area of the fats and increase the rate of digestion.
[Bile] also emulsifies fat to form small droplets which increases the surface area.
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What two factors increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase?
The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase.
The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase.
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How does temperature and pH affect the activity of enzymes?
Temperature affects enzyme activities by decreasing its activity either side of the optimum pH.
Students should be able to describe the nature of enzyme molecules and relate their activity to temperature and pH changes.
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How do you calculate a rate of reaction?
The rate of reaction is calculated by the reactant used or product made divided by time.
Students should be able to carry out rate calculations for chemical reactions.
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What is the most important part of the enzyme with regartds to its shape?
The most important part of an enzymes structure is the active site.
Enzymes catalyse specific reactions in living organisms due to the shape of their active site.
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The binding of the substrate with the active site is known as what theory?
The binding of the substrate with the active site is known as the Lock and Key theory.
Students should be able to use the ?lock and key theory? as a simplified model to explain enzyme action.
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Where are amylase, protease and lipases created in the body?
Amylase is produced in the saliva/mouth, pnacreas and small intestine. Protease is produced in the stomach, pancreas and small intestine. Lipases are produced in the pancreas and small intestine.
Students should be able to recall the sites of production and the action of amylase, proteases and lipases.
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Why are enzymes needed in digestion?
Enzymes are needed in digestion to convert food to small soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
Digestive enzymes convert food into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
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What do carbohydrases break carbohydrates down to?
Carbohydrases break carbohydrates into simple sugars.
Carbohydrases break down carbohydrates to simple sugars.
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What does the carbohydrase amylase break down?
The carbohydrase amalyse breaks down starch in sugars.
Amylase is a carbohydrase which breaks down starch.
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What do proteases break proteins down into?
Proteases break down proteins into amino acids
Proteases break down proteins to amino acids.
0
What do lipases break fat/lipids down into?
Lipases break down fat/lipids into fatty acids and glycerol
Lipases break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids.
0
What is the structure and function of each of the following: a) heart, b) lungs?
The structure and function of the heart and lungs are: a) Heart - muscle, 4 chambers, left and right side, function is to pump blood around the body. b) lungs - large surface area, gas exchange surface.
Students should know the structure and functioning of the human heart and lungs
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How are lungs adapted for gaseous exchange?
The lungs are adpated for gas exchange as they have a large surface area, moist lining, copious blood supply, maintain concetration gradient (ventilation and blood moving through), short diffusion distance.
how lungs are adapted for gaseous exchange.
0
How is blood pumped around the body in the human circulatory system?
The blood is pumped around the body in a double circulatory system.
The heart is an organ that pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system.
0
Where does the left ventricle pump blood to and where does the right ventricle pump to?
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where gas exchange takes place. The left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body.
The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where gas exchange takes place. The left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body.
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What are the names and functions of the blood vessels in the heart?
The main structures in the heart and their functions are: Aorta: a thick walled artery that carries oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body Vena Cava: a thinner walled vein that carries deoxygenated blood back to the heart Pulmonary artery: a thick walled artery that carries deoxygenated blood away from the heart to the lungs Coronary arteries: carry oxygenated blood to the heart muscle
Knowledge of the blood vessels associated with the heart is limited to the aorta, vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein and coronary arteries. Knowledge of the names of the heart valves is not required.
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What are the names and functions of the main structures in the lungs?
The main structures in the lungs and their functions are: Trachea: is a wide, hollow tube that connects the larynx (or voice box) to the bronchi of the lungs Bronchi: main passage of air into the lungs Alveoli: tiny sacs with large surface area that allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to move between the lungs and bloodstream Capillary network: very thin blood vessels that surround the avleoli for rapid gas exchange
Knowledge of the lungs is restricted to the trachea, bronchi, alveoli and the capillary network surrounding the alveoli.
0
What controls the natural resting heart rate?
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker.
The natural resting heart rate is controlled by a group of cells located in the right atrium that act as a pacemaker.
0
What are artificial pacemakers?
Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate.
Artificial pacemakers are electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate.
0
What different types of cells make up blood tissue?
Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended.
Blood is a tissue consisting of plasma, in which the red blood cells, white blood cells and platelets are suspended.
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What are the functions of the components of blood? Plasma, red blood cell, white blood cell, platelets.
The functions of the components of blood are: Plasma: suspends the red and white blood cells Red blood cell: transports oxygen and carbon dioxide around the body White blood cell: attacks and kills pathogens Platelets: causes blood to clot
Students should know the functions of each of these blood components.
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What risks are related to the use of blood products?
Some of the risks related to the use of blood products can include allergic reactions and blood borne infections.
(WS) Evaluate risks related to use of blood products.
0
How are the red and white blood cells adapted for their functions?
White blood cells are adapted to their function of killing pathogens as they produce antibodies, antitoxins and they can change their shape to squeeze into blood vessels. Red blood cells are adapted to their function of transporting oxygen and carbon dioxide as they have a large surface area, they dont have a nucleus and have a thin outer membrane for rapid diffusion.
Students should be able to recognise different types of blood cells in a photograph or diagram, and explain how they are adapted to their functions.
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What are the three different types of blood vessel found in the body?
The three types of blood vessels are arteries, veins and capillaries.
The body contains three different types of blood vessel: ? arteries ? veins ? capillaries.
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How does the structure of arteries, veins and capillaries relate to their functions?
The function of arteries is to carry blood away from the heart, they have narrow lumen and their walls are made of thick elastic fibers to withstand the high pressure blood flow. The function of veins is to carry blood back to the heart, they have wide lumen and thin walls to reduce resistance of blood flow. The function of capillaries is to support the exchange of substances to cells in the body. They have very narrow lumen as blood flow is not under high pressure and thin walls for rapid exchange of substances.
Students should be able to explain how the structure of these vessels relates to their functions.
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How do you calculate the rate of blood flow?
Rate of blood flow can be calculated using: rate = blood volume / time
Students should be able to use simple compound measures such as rate and carry out rate calculations for blood flow.
0
What are the advantages and disadvantages of treating cardiovascular diseases using drugs, mechanical devices or transplant?
The advantages of each treatment for cardiovascular diseases are: Drugs - less negative impact on the body Mechanical devices - strong and durable can last a lifetime Transplants - can last a life time The disadvantages of each treatment for cardiovascular diseases are: Drugs - Required to take everyday, may not continue to work long term Mechanical devices - not long term solution. Causes clotting of red blood cells so drugs required too. Transplants - anti rejection drugs can be needed for the rest of their life
Students should be able to evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of treating cardiovascular diseases by drugs, mechanical devices or transplant.
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How does coronary heart disease effect the body?
In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries, narrowing them.
In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries, narrowing them.
0
What are the causes, and impact on the heart, of angina?
The layers of fatty material reduces the flow of blood through the coronary arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle.
The layers of fatty material reduces the flow of blood through the coronary arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle.
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What are stents used for?
Stents are used to keep the coronary arteries open.
Stents are used to keep the coronary arteries open.
0
What effect do statins have on the body?
Statins are widely used to reduce blood cholesterol levels which slows down the rate of fatty material deposit.
Statins are widely used to reduce blood cholesterol levels which slows down the rate of fatty material deposit.
0
What effect can a faulty heart value have on the body?
Heart valves may become faulty, preventing the valve from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak.
In some people heart valves may become faulty, preventing the valve from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak.
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What are the consequences of having a faulty heart valve?
The effects of having a faulty heart value can include heart failure, stroke, blood clots or death due to sudden cardiac arrest.
Students should understand the consequences of faulty valves.
0
How can heart faulty heart valves be replaced?
Faulty heart valves can be replaced using biological or mechanical valves.
Faulty heart valves can be replaced using biological or mechanical valves.
0
What is a long term treatment for heart or lung failure?
In the case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be transplanted.
In the case of heart failure a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be transplanted.
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When is it appropriate to use an artificial heart?
Artificial hearts are occasionally used to keep patients alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant, or to allow the heart to rest as an aid to recovery.
Artificial hearts are occasionally used to keep patients alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant, or to allow the heart to rest as an aid to recovery.
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What does the term "health" relate to?
Health is the state of physical and mental well-being.
Health is the state of physical and mental well-being.
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What factors can relate to ill health?
Diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, are major causes of ill health. Other factors including diet, stress and life situations may have a profound effect on both physical and mental health.
Diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, are major causes of ill health. Other factors including diet, stress and life situations may have a profound effect on both physical and mental health.
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Can some diseases cause a person to contract other illnesses?
Different types of disease may interact. Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases
Different types of disease may interact. Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases
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How are viruses linked to cancer?
Viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers.
Viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers.
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How are immune reactions related to allergies?
Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies such as skin rashes and asthma.
Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies such as skin rashes and asthma.
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What other impacts can severe physical illness have on a person?
Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other mental illness.
Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other mental illness.
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What does the term "relationship" mean when referring to disease incidence data presented in a table or graph?
The term relationship refers to how one or more factors can effect the frequency of disease.
Students should be able to translate disease incidence information between graphical and numerical forms, construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, bar charts and histograms, and use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables. (MS)
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What does epidemiological data refer to?
Epidemiological data is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where) and determinants of health and disease conditions in defined populations.
Students should understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data, including epidemiological data. (MS)
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What are the risk factors that can increase the rate of a disease?
Risk factors are linked to an increased rate of a disease. They can be aspects of a person's lifestyle, substances in the person's body or environment.
Risk factors are linked to an increased rate of a disease. They can be: ? aspects of a person?s lifestyle ? substances in the person?s body or environment.
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What does the term "risk factors" mean?
Risk factors are linked to an increased rate of a disease.
(WS) Interpret data about risk factors for specified diseases.
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What are the different causal mechanisms that have been proven for some risk factors such as diet, smoking, obesity, radiation?
A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk factors, but not in others. The effects of diet, smoking and exercise on cardiovascular disease. Obesity as a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes. The effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function. The effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer. The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies. Carcinogens, including ionising radiation, as risk factors in cancer.
A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk factors, but not in others. ? The effects of diet, smoking and exercise on cardiovascular disease. ? Obesity as a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes. ? The effect of alcohol on the liver and brain function. ? The effect of smoking on lung disease and lung cancer. ? The effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn babies. ? Carcinogens, including ionising radiation, as risk factors in cancer.
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Are diseases usually caused by one or more factors?
Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number of factors.
Many diseases are caused by the interaction of a number of factors.
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What impact would a larger sample size have on the validity of the data?
The larger a sample the more representative of that popular the results of the analysis would be. The data would be more valid.
Students should be able to understand the principles of sampling as applied to scientific data in terms of risk factors.
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What correlation would you expect to see between the following pairs of variables in terms of risk factors: a) smoking vs. incidence of cancer, b) alcohol consumption vs. foetal growth, c) drugs vs. mental health concerns?
The expected correlation between the following variables could be: a) the more you smoke the higher chance of cancer you have, b) the higher the alcohol consumption the lower the foetal growth c) the higher the drug use the higher the risk of mental health concerns
Students should be able to use a scatter diagram to identify a correlation between two variables in terms of risk factors.
0
How do the structures of each plant tissue relate to their function?
The epidermis tissue within a plant is thin and transparent in order to let light to reach the palisade layer. The palisade mesophyll tissue has many chloroplasts as it is the main site of photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll tissue has large gaps to allow for gas exchange. The xylem is made of a column of dead cells which are waterproof. Phloem is made of live cells protected in the middle of the plant so they can transport glucose. The meristem tissue is made of stem cells which allow for rapid growth and repair.
Students should be able to explain how the structures of plant tissues are related to their functions.
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What tissues are found within the plant?
Plant tissues include: - epidermal tissues - palisade mesophyll - spongy mesophyll - xylem and phloem - meristem tissue found at the growing tips of shoots and roots.
Plant tissues include: - epidermal tissues - palisade mesophyll - spongy mesophyll - xylem and phloem - meristem tissue found at the growing tips of shoots and roots.
0
What level of organisation do plant leaves fall into?
The leaf is a plant organ.
The leaf is a plant organ. Knowledge limited to epidermis, palisade and spongy mesophyll, xylem and phloem, and guard cells surrounding stomata.
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How are the following adapted to their functions: a) root hair cells, b) xylem, c) phloem?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to volume ratio to allow for effective transport of substances. The inside of the xylem vessels is made of dead cells that are waterproof to allow water up the stem. The phloem are made of live cells meaning transport can happen by active transport as well as diffusion.
Students should be able to explain how the structure of root hair cells, xylem and phloem are adapted to their functions.
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How does increasing temperature, humidity and light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?
Increasing temperature increases transpiration due to increased evaporation of water from the stomata. Increasing humidity decreases the rate of transpiration due to the concentration of water particles on the outside of the leaf being higher and therefore osmosis not occurring. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of transpiration due to the increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Students should be able to explain the effect of changing temperature, humidity, air movement and light intensity on the rate of transpiration.
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Which parts of the plant are involved in transporting substances?
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of substances around the plant.
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of substances around the plant.
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What are translocation and transpiration and how do they work?
Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from the leaves, through the opening of the stomata, which results in more water being drawn up from the roots. Translocation is the movement of nutrients and other substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant.This happens through diffusion and active transport.
Students should be able to describe the process of transpiration and translocation, including the structure and function of the stomata.
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What is the job of the root hair cells and how are they adapted to it?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to volume ratio so that they are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.
Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.
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What is the role of xylem tissue and how is it adapted for it?
Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the transport of water in the transpiration stream.
Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the transport of water in the transpiration stream.
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What is the role of the stomata and guard cells?
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange and water loss.
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange and water loss.
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What is the role of the phloem and what is the name of this process?
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation.
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation.
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What products are made in photosynthesis when carbon dioxide and water react?
In photosynthesis carbon dioxide and water react to make glucose and oxygen.
Photosynthesis is represented by the equation: (light above arrow) carbon dioxide + water -> glucose + oxygen
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What sort of reaction is photosynthesis and how do we know this?
Photosynthesis is an endothermic reaction and we know this because energy is taken into the chloroplasts from the environment by light.
Students should be able to describe photosynthesis as an endothermic reaction in which energy is transferred from the environment to the chloroplasts by light.
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What five different uses do plants have for the glucose produced in photosynthesis?
The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be: - used for respiration - converted into insoluble starch for storage - used to produce fat or oil for storage - used to produce cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall - used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis.
The glucose produced in photosynthesis may be: ? used for respiration ? converted into insoluble starch for storage ? used to produce fat or oil for storage ? used to produce cellulose, which strengthens the cell wall ? used to produce amino acids for protein synthesis.
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What else do plants need to produce proteins and where do they get them from?
To produce proteins, plants also use nitrate ions that are absorbed from the soil.
To produce proteins, plants also use nitrate ions that are absorbed from the soil.
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How do each of the following factors affect the rate of photosynthesis: a) temperature, b) light intensity, c) carbon dioxide concentration, d) amount of chlorophyll?
Increasing temperature increases the rate of photosynthesis to a point as it increases collisions and therefore increases reaction rate. However past a point it starts to evaporate water and slows down photosynthesis. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of photosynthesis to a point where it levels off. Increasing carbon dioxide concentration and the amount of chlorophyll has the same effect as increasing light intensity.
Students should be able to explain the effects of temperature, light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and the amount of chlorophyll on the rate of photosynthesis.
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What method can be used to measure and calculate the rate of photosynthesis?
The rate of photosynthesis can be measured by measuring the amount of oxygen produced over time.
Students should be able to measure and calculate rates of photosynthesis (MS)
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(HT only) What is a limiting factor of photosynthesis?
(HT only) A limiting factor of photosynthesis is any one of the following components: light intensity, temperature, carbon dioxide concentration, the amount of chlorophyll, that if there is not enough of it will stop the rate of photosynthesis increasing regardless of how much there is of the other components.
(HT only) These factors interact and any one of them may be the factor that limits photosynthesis.
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(HT) How is the inverse square law important in terms of light intensity in the context of photosynthesis?
The inverse square law in important as it states that the intensity of light is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source.This means that when the light is moved twice as far from the plant it will receive a quarter of the energy.
(HT only) Students should understand and use inverse proportion ? the inverse square law and light intensity in the context of photosynthesis.
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(HT) How do limiting factors in a greenhouse relate to rate of photosynthesis and profit?
(HT only) The conditions within a greenhouse can be controlled and therefore can be enhanced to gain the maximum rate of photosynthesis while still maintaining profit.
(HT only) Limiting factors are important in the economics of enhancing the conditions in greenhouses to gain the maximum rate of photosynthesis while still maintaining profit.
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What sort of reaction can cellular respiration be described as?
Cellular respiration is an exothermic reaction which is continuously occurring in living cells.
Students should be able to describe cellular respiration as an exothermic reaction which is continuously occurring in living cells.
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What is the energy transferred in respiration needed for?
The energy transferred supplies all the energy needed for living processes.
The energy transferred supplies all the energy needed for living processes.
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In which ways can respiration in cells transfer energy?
Respiration in cells can take place aerobically (using oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen), to transfer energy.
Respiration in cells can take place aerobically (using oxygen) or anaerobically (without oxygen), to transfer energy.
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What is the difference in products and amount of energy produced by aerobic respiration compared to anaerobic respiration?
The products of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide, energy and water and it produces far more energy than anaerobic respiration. Anaerobic respiration produces lactic acid and energy.
Students should be able to compare the processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration with regard to the need for oxygen, the differing products and the relative amounts of energy transferred.
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What three things do organisms need energy for?
Organisms need energy for: - chemical reactions to build larger molecules - movement - keeping warm.
Organisms need energy for: ? chemical reactions to build larger molecules ? movement ? keeping warm.
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How can aerobic respiration be displayed in a word equation?
Aerobic respiration is represented by the equation: glucose oxygen --> carbon dioxide water
Aerobic respiration is represented by the equation: glucose oxygen --> carbon dioxide water
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What do the following symbols C6H12O6 , O2 , CO2 and H2O represent?
C6H12O6 is glucose, O2 is oxygen, CO2 is carbon dioxide and H2O is water.
Students should recognise the chemical symbols: C6H12O6 , O2 , CO2 and H2O.
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What equation represents anaerobic respiration in muscle cells?
Anaerobic respiration in muscles is represented by the equation: glucose -> lactic acid.
Anaerobic respiration in muscles is represented by the equation: glucose -> lactic acid
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Why is less energy produced in anaerobic respiration compared to aerobic respiration?
As the oxidation of glucose is incomplete in anaerobic respiration much less energy is transferred than in aerobic respiration.
As the oxidation of glucose is incomplete in anaerobic respiration much less energy is transferred than in aerobic respiration.
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What equation shows the anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells?
Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells is represented by the equation: glucose -> ethanol carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic respiration in plant and yeast cells is represented by the equation: glucose -> ethanol carbon dioxide
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What is anaerobic respiration in yeast cells also known as and why has it got economic importance?
Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called fermentation and has economic importance in the manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks.
Anaerobic respiration in yeast cells is called fermentation and has economic importance in the manufacture of bread and alcoholic drinks
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What does the body react to during exercise?
During exercise the human body reacts to the increased demand for energy.
During exercise the human body reacts to the increased demand for energy.
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What changes happen in the cardiovascular system when exercise increases and why?
The heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume increase during exercise to supply the muscles with more oxygenated blood.
The heart rate, breathing rate and breath volume increase during exercise to supply the muscles with more oxygenated blood.
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When does anaerobic respiration take place in muscles?
If insufficient oxygen is supplied anaerobic respiration takes place in muscles.
If insufficient oxygen is supplied anaerobic respiration takes place in muscles.
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What causes oxygen debt?
The incomplete oxidation of glucose causes a build up of lactic acid and creates an oxygen debt.
The incomplete oxidation of glucose causes a build up of lactic acid and creates an oxygen debt.
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What happens to the muscles during long periods of vigorous activity?
During long periods of vigorous activity muscles become fatigued and stop contracting efficiently.
During long periods of vigorous activity muscles become fatigued and stop contracting efficiently.
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(HT) How is lactic acid converted back to glucose?
(HT only) Blood flowing through the muscles transports the lactic acid to the liver where it is converted back into glucose.
(HT only) Blood flowing through the muscles transports the lactic acid to the liver where it is converted back into glucose.
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(HT) What is the oxygen debt?
(HT only) Oxygen debt is the amount of extra oxygen the body needs after exercise to react with the accumulated lactic acid and remove it from the cells.
(HT only) Oxygen debt is the amount of extra oxygen the body needs after exercise to react with the accumulated lactic acid and remove it from the cells.
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How can metabolism be described?
Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body.
Metabolism is the sum of all the reactions in a cell or the body.
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How are respiration and metabolism linked?
The energy transferred by respiration in cells is used by the organism for the continual enzyme controlled processes of metabolism that synthesise new molecules.
The energy transferred by respiration in cells is used by the organism for the continual enzyme controlled processes of metabolism that synthesise new molecules.
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What processes are included in metabolism?
Metabolism includes: a) conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose, b) the formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. C) ? the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids which in turn are used to synthesise proteins. d) respiration. e) breakdown of excess proteins to form urea for excretion.
Metabolism includes: a) conversion of glucose to starch, glycogen and cellulose, b) the formation of lipid molecules from a molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids. C) ? the use of glucose and nitrate ions to form amino acids which in turn are used to synthesise proteins. d) respiration. e) breakdown of excess proteins to form urea for excretion
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Why are sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol important in the synthesis of new materials?
Sugars are important as they join together to make carbohydrates, amino acids are the components of proteins and fatty acids and glycerol become lipids.
Be able to explain the importance of sugars, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol in the synthesis and breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.
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What are pathogens?
Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease.
Pathogens are microorganisms that cause infectious disease.
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What are the humans natural defence systems against pathogens?
The humans natural defence systems against pathogens are the skin, nose, stomach, trachea and bronchi.
Students should be able to describe the non-specific defence systems of the human body against pathogens, including the: - skin - nose - trachea and bronchi - stomach.
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What is the role of the immune system in the defence against disease?
The role of the immune system in the defence against disease is to detect and destroy pathogens that enter the body's blood stream.
Students should be able to explain the role of the immune system in the defence against disease.
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How does the immune system respond if a pathogen enters the body?
If a pathogens enters the body the immune system tries to destroy the pathogen
If a pathogen enters the body the immune system tries to destroy the pathogen.
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How do white blood cells help to defend against pathogens? (give 3 ways)
White blood cells help to defend against pathogens by: - phagocytosis - antibody production - antitoxin production.
White blood cells help to defend against pathogens by: - phagocytosis - antibody production - antitoxin production.
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How do the different pathogens spread in animals and plants?
Pathogens can be spread in plants and animals through direct contact, by water or through the air.
Students should be able to explain how diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, protists and fungi are spread in animals and plants.
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How can the spread of diseases be reduced or prevented?
The spread of pathogens can be reduced or prevented through simple hygiene (covering the mouth when coughing or washing hands), isolation of infected individuals, destroying vectors (such as mosquitoes carrying malaria) or vaccination.
Students should be able to explain how the spread of diseases can be reduced or prevented.
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What four categories can pathogens fall into?
Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi.
Pathogens may be viruses, bacteria, protists or fungi.
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What can pathogens infect and how are they spread?
Pathogens may infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, by water or by air.
Pathogens may infect plants or animals and can be spread by direct contact, by water or by air.
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What do bacteria and viruses do once inside the body?
Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body.
Bacteria and viruses may reproduce rapidly inside the body.
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How do bacteria make us feel ill?
Bacteria may produce poisons (toxins) that damage tissues and make us feel ill.
Bacteria may produce poisons (toxins) that damage tissues and make us feel ill.
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How do viruses cause damage to the cells?
Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage.
Viruses live and reproduce inside cells, causing cell damage.
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What is measles and why are young children vaccinated against it?
Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash. Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.
Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash. Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.
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How is the measles virus spread?
The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.
The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.
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What is the initial symptom of HIV and what do antiretroviral drugs stop the virus doing?
HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body's immune cells.
HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body's immune cells.
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When does late stage HIV infection or AIDS occur?
Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body's immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.
Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body's immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.
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How is HIV spread?
HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles.
HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles.
0
What is tobacco mosaic virus?
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes.
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes.
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How does tobacco mosaic virus reduce growth in plants?
TMV gives a distinctive 'mosaic' pattern of discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.
TMV gives a distinctive 'mosaic' pattern of discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.
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How is Salmonella food poisoning spread?
Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions.
Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions.
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What animal is vaccinated in the UK to control the spread of Salmonella?
In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.
In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.
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What are the symptoms of salmonella and what causes them?
Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the [Salmonella] bacteria and the toxins they secrete.
Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the [Salmonella] bacteria and the toxins they secrete.
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What is gonhorrhoea and what are the symptoms?
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.
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How and why has treatment of gonorrhoea changed over time?
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared.
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared.
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How is gonhorroea spread?
Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.
Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.
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How can the spread of gonorrhoea be controlled?
The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom.
The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom.
0
What are three examples of plant diseases you need to know?
The three plant diseases you need to know are 1. mosaic virus as a viral disease 2. black spot as a fungal disease 3. aphids as insects
Knowledge of plant diseases is restricted to tobacco mosaic virus as a viral disease, black spot as a fungal disease and aphids as insects.
0
What are the pathogens that cause malaria called?
The pathogens that cause malaria are protists.
The pathogens that cause malaria are protists.
0
What is rose black spot and how does it affect the growth of a plant?
Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots develop on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early. It affects the growth of the plant as photosynthesis is reduced.
Rose black spot is a fungal disease where purple or black spots develop on leaves, which often turn yellow and drop early. It affects the growth of the plant as photosynthesis is reduced.
0
How is rose black spot spread in the environment?
Rose black spot is spread in the environment by water or wind.
Rose black spot is spread in the environment by water or wind.
0
How can rose black spot be treated?
Rose black spot can be treated by using fungicides and/or removing and destroying the affected leaves.
Rose black spot can be treated by using fungicides and/or removing and destroying the affected leaves.
0
What vector is used to spread malaria and what are the symptoms of it?
The malarial protist has a life cycle that includes the mosquito. Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal.
The malarial protist has a life cycle that includes the mosquito. Malaria causes recurrent episodes of fever and can be fatal.
0
How is the spread of malaria controlled?
The spread of malaria is controlled by preventing the vectors, mosquitos, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten.
The spread of malaria is controlled by preventing the vectors, mosquitos, from breeding and by using mosquito nets to avoid being bitten.
0
(Bio only) What can cause plant infections?
Plants can be infected by a range of viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens as well as by insects.
Plants can be infected by a range of viral, bacterial and fungal pathogens as well as by insects.
0
(Bio only) What causes deficiency conditions in plants?
Deficiency conditions in plants can be caused by a lack of ions
Plants can be damaged by a range of ion deficiency conditions. Knowledge of ions is limited to nitrate ions needed for protein synthesis and therefore growth, and magnesium ions needed to make chlorophyll. * The understanding of ion deficiencies allows horticulturists to provide optimum conditions for plants.
0
(Bio only) What ion can cause stunted growth and why?
Stunted growth is caused by nitrate deficiency, this is caused by reduced protein synthesis.
Stunted growth caused by nitrate deficiency
0
(Bio only) What ion can cause chlorosis (pale green leaves)?
Chlorosis is caused by magnesium deficiency
Chlorosis caused by magnesium deficiency
0
(Bio only) What are the chemical and physical plant defence responses.
Physical-Thorns Chemical-Toxins produced example stinging nettle.Some plants are poisionous.
Students should be able to describe physical and chemical plant defence responses.
0
(Bio only) What are the physical defences that plants have to resist invasion of microorganisms?
The physical defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms include: ? Cellulose cell walls. ? Tough waxy cuticle on leaves. ? Layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off.
Physical defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms. ? Cellulose cell walls. ? Tough waxy cuticle on leaves. ? Layers of dead cells around stems (bark on trees) which fall off.
0
(Bio only) What are the chemical defences that plants have to resist invasion of microorganisms?
The chemical plant defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms include: - Antibacterial chemicals. - Poisons to deter herbivores.
Chemical plant defence responses. ? Antibacterial chemicals. ? Poisons to deter herbivores.
0
(Bio only) What are the different ways that plant diseases can be detected?
(HT) Plant diseases can be detected by: - stunted growth - spots on leaves - areas of decay (rot) - growths - malformed stems or leaves - discolouration - the presence of pests.
(HT only) Plant diseases can be detected by: ? stunted growth ? spots on leaves ? areas of decay (rot) ? growths ? malformed stems or leaves ? discolouration ? the presence of pests.
0
(Bio only) How can plant diseases be identified? (give three ways)
(HT) Plant diseases can be identified by: - reference to a gardening manual or website - taking infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen - using testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies.
(HT only) Identification can be made by: ? reference to a gardening manual or website ? taking infected plants to a laboratory to identify the pathogen ? using testing kits that contain monoclonal antibodies.
0
(Bio only) What are the mechanical adaptations that plants have to resist invasion of microoganisms?
The mechnical adaptations that plants have to resist invasion of microorganisms are: - Thorns and hairs deter animals. - Leaves which droop or curl when touched. - Mimicry to trick animals.
Mechanical adaptations. ? Thorns and hairs deter animals. ? Leaves which droop or curl when touched. ? Mimicry to trick animals.
0
How do vaccinations prevent illness in an individual and the spread of disease in a population?
Vaccinations prevent the illness in an individual by stimulating the white blood cells to produce antibodies making the immune system quicker to respond if infected with the virus. Vaccinations reduce the wide spread of infectious diseases caused by viruses.
Students should be able to explain how vaccination will prevent illness in an individual, and how the spread of pathogens can be reduced by immunising a large proportion of the population.
0
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using vaccinations to prevent disease?
The advantages of using vaccinations to prevent disease are that less people will be infected by the disease, the disease will not spread as far and the cost of a vaccine is usually cheaper than treating an ill person. The disadvantages are that some people will still suffer with the illness (different strains or not full effects), there are posisble side affects of the vaccine and vaccinations cost NHS/people money.
Evaluate the global use of vaccination in the prevention of disease.
0
What is in a vaccine?
A vaccination is a small quantity of dead or inactive forms of a pathogen
Vaccination involves introducing small quantities of dead or inactive forms of a pathogen into the body to stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies.
0
How does a vaccination work?
The vaccination causes the body to stimulate the white blood cells to produce antibodies. If the same pathogen re-enters the body the white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies, preventing infection.
If the same pathogen re-enters the body the white blood cells respond quickly to produce the correct antibodies, preventing infection.
0
How are infective diseases treated?
Infected diseases can be treated by antibiotics and other medicines such as fungal creams
Students should be able to explain the use of antibiotics and other medicines in treating disease.
0
How are drugs used to cure bacterial diseases?
Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside the body.
Antibiotics, such as penicillin, are medicines that help to cure bacterial disease by killing infective bacteria inside the body.
0
Why are specific antibiotics prescribed by doctors?
Doctors prescribe specific antibiotics because specific bacteria must be treated by specific antibiotics
It is important that specific bacteria should be treated by specific antibiotics.
0
What has the impact of using antibiotics to treat infectious bacterial diseases?
The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases.
The use of antibiotics has greatly reduced deaths from infectious bacterial diseases.
0
Why are doctors advised to not overly prescribe antibiotics?
Over prescription of antibiotics can lead to strains of bacteria that are resistant to the antibiotics
However, the emergence of strains resistant to antibiotics is of great concern.
0
Why can antibiotics not be used to treat viral infections?
Antibiotics cannot be used to treat viral infections because they do not kill viral pathogens
Antibiotics cannot kill viral pathogens.
0
Why do people take painkillers and other medicines when suffering from an infectious disease?
People take painkillers and other medicines to treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens.
Painkillers and other medicines are used to treat the symptoms of disease but do not kill pathogens.
0
Why are there no drugs to kill viruses? (vaccinations prevent infection)
There are no drugs to kill viruses that don't also damage the body's tissues.
It is difficult to develop drugs that kill viruses without also damaging the body?s tissues.
0
Where are drugs traditionally extracted from?
Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.
Traditionally drugs were extracted from plants and microorganisms.
0
Which plant does the heart drug digitalis orginate from?
The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves.
The heart drug digitalis originates from foxgloves.
0
Which plant does the painkiller aspirin orginate from?
The painkiller aspirin originates from willow.
The painkiller aspirin originates from willow.
0
Who discovered pneicillin and from what?
Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium mould.
Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming from the Penicillium mould.
0
How are most new drugs synthesised by chemists?
Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical industry. However, the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant.
Most new drugs are synthesised by chemists in the pharmaceutical industry. However, the starting point may still be a chemical extracted from a plant.
0
Why are new drugs tested and trialled before being used?
New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used to check that they are safe and effective.
New medical drugs have to be tested and trialled before being used to check that they are safe and effective.
0
What happens during preclinical testing?
Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals.
Preclinical testing is done in a laboratory using cells, tissues and live animals.
0
What happens during clinical trials?
Clinical trials give the new drug to healthy volunteers and patients and observe the effects
Clinical trials use healthy volunteers and patients.
0
What level of dose is used at the start of the clinical trial?
During the clinical trial very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial.
Very low doses of the drug are given at the start of the clinical trial.
0
If the new drug is found to be safe during the initial clinical trial what do scientists do to the dosage?
If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for the drug.
If the drug is found to be safe, further clinical trials are carried out to find the optimum dose for the drug.
0
What does a double blind trial mean?
In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo but neither the scientist or the patients know who has the drug and who has the placebo
In double blind trials, some patients are given a placebo.
0
What is the final stage of the drug trial?
The final stage of a drug trial is for the drug to scruntised by peer review.
Students understand that the results of testing and trials are published only after scrutiny by peer review. (WS)
0
What are the stages involved in developing a new drug?
The stages involved in developing a drug include preclinical, clinical trials with healthy volunteers and patients, then further trails to establish dosage, final stage is for the findings to be peer reviewed.
Students should be able to describe the process of discovery and development of potential new medicines, including preclinical and clinical testing.
0
(Bio only) How are monoclonal antibodies produced?
Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells.
Students should be able to describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced.
0
(Bio only) How many clone of cells produce monoclonal antibodies
Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells.
Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of cells.
0
(Bio only) Why are monoclonal antibodies important?
Monoclonal antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen and so are able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body.
The antibodies are specific to one binding site on one protein antigen and so are able to target a specific chemical or specific cells in the body.
0
(Bio only) How can monoclonal antibodies produced?
Monoclonal antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse lymphocytes to make a particular antibody.
Antibodies are produced by stimulating mouse lymphocytes to make a particular antibody.
0
(Bio only) How are hybridoma cells made and why are they useful?
Lymphocytes from mice are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to make a cell called a hybridoma cell. The hybridoma cell can both divide and make the antibody.
The lymphocytes are combined with a particular kind of tumour cell to make a cell called a hybridoma cell. The hybridoma cell can both divide and make the antibody.
0
(Bio only) Why are single hybridoma cells cloned?
Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce the same antibody.
Single hybridoma cells are cloned to produce many identical cells that all produce the same antibody.
0
(Bio only) Why is the use of hybridoma cells important?
The use of hybridoma cells are important because a large amount of the antibodiy can be collected and purified
A large amount of the antibody can be collected and purified.
0
(Bio only) What ethical issues are there in the use of monochlonal antibodies?
The ethical issues surrounding monochlonal antibodies surround the extraction of lympocytes from white blood cells
Students should be able to describe some of the ways in which monoclonal antibodies can be used. * Appreciate the power of monoclonal antibodies and consider any ethical issues (WS).
0
(Bio only) List 6 ways that monoclonal antibodies can be used
Diagnosis in pregnancy tests to measure hormones and other chemicals in blood detect pathogens in the blood to locate or identify specific moleucles in cells or tissues by binding with fluorescent dye to treat diseases
Some examples [of monoclonal antibodies] include: ? for diagnosis such as in pregnancy tests ? in laboratories to measure the levels of hormones and other chemicals in blood, or to detect pathogens ? in research to locate or identify specific molecules in a cell or tissue by binding to them with a fluorescent ?dye to treat some diseases (e.g. cancer)
0
(Bio only) How can monochlonal diseases be used to treat cancer?
The antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical which stops cells growing and dividing.
Monochlonal antibodies are used to treat cancer. The antibody can be bound to a radioactive substance, a toxic drug or a chemical which stops cells growing and dividing.
0
(Bio only) Does the use of monochlonal antibodies harm other cells in the body?
No, other cells are not harmed as they are specific for antigens
Monochlonal antibodies deliver the substance to the cancer cells without harming other cells in the body.
0
(Bio only) List examples of how monoclonal antibodies are useful as treatments or tests.
Monoclonal antibodies can be used in pregnacy tests. Glucose tests for diabetics. Testing for specific cancers.
Students are not expected to recall any specific tests or treatments but given appropriate information they should be able to explain how they work.
0
(Bio only) What are the disadvantages of using monoclonal antibodies?
Monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected. They are not yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.
Monoclonal antibodies create more side effects than expected. They are not yet as widely used as everyone hoped when they were first developed.
0
(Bio only) What are the advantages of monoclonal antibodies?
Monoclonal antibodies enable fast treatment of diseases and may eradicate the need for human donars
* Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies.
0
What are the three states of matter?
The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas.
The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Melting and freezing take place at the melting point, boiling and condensing take place at the boiling point.
0
How are the three states of nmatter represented when using solid spheres to represent particles?
When using solid spheres to represent particles, the three states of matter can be represented as follows: Solid - particles packed tightly together and are arranged in a regular pattern. Liquid - particles are close together and arranged in a random way. Gas - particles are far apart and arranged in a random way.
The three states of matter can be represented by a simple model. In this model, particles are represented by small solid spheres.
0
What happens to a substance as it changes from a solid to a liquid?
When a substance is changing state from a solid to a liquid, it is melting. In a solid the particles are close together and touching in a fixed pattern. They are vibrating around a fixed point. As the particles are heated they begin to store more internal energy. The particles transfer this internal energy store using a thermal pathway into kinetic energy and therefore move more. In a liquid the particles are still touching but are arranged in a random way and can flow over one another.
Particle theory can help to explain melting, boiling, freezing and condensing.
0
Why do different substances have different melting and boiling points?
Different substances have different melting and boiling points because the amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of the substance. The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the substance. The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point of the substance.
The amount of energy needed to change state from solid to liquid and from liquid to gas depends on the strength of the forces between the particles of the substance. The nature of the particles involved depends on the type of bonding and the structure of the substance. The stronger the forces between the particles the higher the melting point and boiling point of the substance.
0
What are the limitations to using simple particle models used to represent the different states of matter?
The limitations of the simple particle models used to represent the different states of matter are that in the model there are no forces represented, all particles are represented as spheres and that the spheres are solid.
(HT only) Limitations of the simple model above include that in the model there are no forces, that all particles are represented as spheres and that the spheres are solid.
0
What state would substance A be at room temperature (25oC) when substance A has a melting point of -10oC and a boiling point of 55oC?
When substance A has a melting point of -10oC and a boiling point of 55oC, substance A would be a liquid at room temperature as 25oC is greater than the melting point of substance A but lower than its boiling point.
Students should be able to predict the states of substances at different temperatures given appropriate data
0
Why does water boil at 100oC rather than 90oC, in terms of bonding and energy transfers?
Water boils at 100oC, rather than 90oC, as the amount of energy needed to break each bond between the water molecules is only reached at 100oC and not at 90oC.
Students should be able to explain the different temperatures at which changes of state occur in terms of energy transfers and types of bonding
0
(HT) What are the limitations of the particle theory in relation to changes of state?
(HT) The limitations of particle theory in relation to changes of state are that the particles are represented by solid, inelastic spheres which have no forces between them. It also does not show the bonds between molecules, does not take into account the size of particles and the space between them.
(HT only) explain the limitations of the particle theory in relation to changes of state when particles are represented by solid inelastic spheres which have no forces between them.
0
What is the smallest part of an element that can exist?
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist.
All substances are made of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist.
0
How are atoms of elements represented on the periodic table?
Atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol.
Atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol, eg O represents an atom of oxygen, Na represents an atom of sodium.
0
How many different elements are there?
There are over 100 different elements.
There are about 100 different elements. Elements are shown in the periodic table.
0
How are compounds formed?
Compounds are formed from elements by chemical reactions.
Compounds are formed from elements by chemical reactions.
0
How can chemical reactions be detected other than through the observation of new substances forming?
Chemical reactions can be measured by a detectable energy change.
Chemical reactions always involve the formation of one or more new substances, and often involve a detectable energy change.
0
What is a compound and how is it respresented?
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions and can be represented by formulae using the symbols of the atoms from which they were formed.
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions and can be represented by formulae using the symbols of the atoms from which they were formed.
0
What type of reaction is needed to separate a compound into elements?
Compounds can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions.
Compounds can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions.
0
How are chemical reactions represented?
Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations or equations using symbols and formulae.
Chemical reactions can be represented by word equations or equations using symbols and formulae.
0
What are the names and symbols of elements in Groups 1 and 7?
Group 1: L (Lithium), Na (Sodium), K (Potassium), Rb (Rubidium), Cs (Caesium), Fr (Francium). Group 7: F (Fluorine), Neon (Ne), Argon (Ar), Kr (Krypton), Xe (Xenon), Rn (Radon).
Students will be supplied with a periodic table for the exam and should be able to use the names and symbols of the first 20 elements in the periodic table, the elements in Groups 1 and 7, and other elements in this specification
0
What are the names of the following compounds: NaCl, KF, LiBr?
NaCl - sodium chloride, KF - potassium fluoride, LiBr - Lithium bromide.
Name compounds of these elements from given formulae or symbol equations.
0
In a chemical equation, what do the symbols (s), (l), (g), and (aq) represent?
In a chemical equation, the following symbols represent the following states: (s) = Solid (l) = Liquid (g) = Gas (aq) = Aqueous solution (dissolved in water)
In chemical equations, the three states of matter are shown as (s), (l) and (g), with (aq) for aqueous solutions.
0
What state symbols are added to each part of the chemical equation below? C O2 -> CO2
The state symbols added the each part of the chemical equation is seen below: C (s) O2 (g) -> CO2 (g)
Review from KS3 balancing equations if secure in the naming and symbols of basic elements and compounds.
0
What is a mixture?
A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds not chemically combined together.
A mixture consists of two or more elements or compounds not chemically combined together.
0
What happens to the chemical properties of each substance in a mixture?
In a mixture the chemical properties of each substance in the mixture are unchanged.
The chemical properties of each substance in the mixture are unchanged.
0
When mixtures are separated by physical processes how does this affect the chemical reactions and substances made?
Mixtures separated by physical processes do not involve chemical reactions and no new substances are made.
Mixtures can be separated by physical processes such as filtration, crystallisation, simple distillation, fractional distillation and chromatography. These physical processes do not involve chemical reactions and no new substances are made.
0
How are mixtures separated using filtration?
Mixtures of insoluble solid molcules and liquids can be seperated using filitration. The insoluble solid is unable to pass through filter paper allowing them to be separated from a liquid. For example a when a mixture of sand and water is filtered the sand remains in the filter and the water passes through.
Filtration (review from KS3)
0
How are mixtures separated using crystallisation?
Crystallisation can be used to separate a solid that has dissolved in a liquid. The mixture is heated to remove most of the liquid and then left to allow crystals of the solid to form
Crystallisation (review from KS3)
0
How are mixtures separated using simple distillation?
Distillation is a process that can be used to separate a pure liquid from a mixture of liquids. It works when the liquids have different boiling points. Distillation is commonly used to separate ethanol - the alcohol in alcoholic drinks - from water.
Simple distillation (review from KS3)
0
How are mixtures separated using fractional distillation?
During fractional distillation a mixture is separated into its component parts, or fractions, based on their boiling point. This is achieved by heating them to a temperature at which one or more fractions of the compound will vaporise and condensing them at different temperatures in a distillation column.
fractional distillation
0
How are mixtures separated using chromatography?
In chromatography a mixture is passed through a medium in which the components move at different rates allowing separation of the individual components.
chromatography (review from KS3)
0
How could we separare a mixture of sand, salt, iron and water into its individual components?
A mixture of sand, salt, iron and water can be seperated using filtration to separate out the insoluble solids (iron and sand) from the solution (salt and water). Iron can be separated from the sand using a magnet. Salt and water can be separated by either evaporation or distillation.
Students should be able to suggest suitable separation and purification techniques for mixtures when given appropriate information.
0
What can lead to a scientific model being changed or replace?
New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being changed or replaced.
New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being changed or replaced. (WS) This historical context provides an opportunity for students to show an understanding of why and describe how scientific methods and theories develop over time.
0
What is an atom?
The word atom means indivisible. An atom is the smallest constituent unit of ordinary matter.
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny spheres that could not be divided.
0
What were the main features of the 'plum pudding' model of the atom?
In the plum pudding model the atom was thought to be a sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons dotted around inside it like plums in a pudding.
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the atom.
0
How did the 'plum pudding' model describe the structure of an atom?
The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
0
How did the Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment change our understanding of the structure of the atom?
A beam of alpha particles was aimed at very thin gold foil and their passage through the foil detected. The scientists expected the alpha particles to pass straight through the foil, but something else also happened. Some of the alpha particles emerged from the foil at different angles, and some even came straight back. The scientists realised that the positively charged alpha particles were being repelled and deflected by a tiny concentration of positive charge in the atom. As a result of this experiment, the plum pudding model was replaced by the nuclear model of the atom.
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre (nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model replaced the plum pudding model.
0
What contribution did Niels-Bohr make in furthering our understanding of the structure of the atom.
Niels-Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations of Bohr agreed with experimental observations.
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations of Bohr agreed with experimental observations.
0
Which subatomic particle gives the nucleus of the atom a positive charge?
Protons give the nucleus of the atom a postive charge, each proton has mass of 1 and a 1 charge.
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge. The name proton was given to these particles.
0
What discovery did James Chadwick make that advanced our understanding of the structure of an atom?
James Chadwick provided evidence that the nucleus of an atom was also made of neutrons. Protons were discovered some 20 years prior.
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific idea.
0
How did the evidence of alpha particles scattering lead to a change in the atomic model?
The new evidence of alpha particles scattering during the gold leaf experiment lead to a new atomic model as it proved most of the atom was empty space except for a postive charge at the very centre of it.
Students should be able to describe why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a change in the atomic model
0
Describe the currently accepted structure of the atom
A nucleus composed of protons and neutrons, surrounded by shells of electrons.
Students should be able to describe the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and the nuclear model of the atom.
0
What are the relative electrical charges of each sub-atomic particle?
The relative electrical charges of each sub-atomic particles are: Proton 1 Neutron 0 Electron -1
The relative electrical charges of the particles in atoms are: Proton +1 Neutron 0 Electron -1
0
Why do atoms have no overall charge?
Atoms do not have an overall charge as a number of POSITIVE protons will always match the number of NEGATIVE electrons.
Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
0
If an atom has 9 protons, how many electrons would it have?
If an atom has 9 protons it would have 9 electrons.
In an atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
0
What does the atomic number of an element tell us?
The atomic number tells us the number of protons found in an atom of that element.
The number of protons in an atom of an element is its atomic number.
0
What do all atoms of a particular element have in common?
Atoms of the same element all have the same number of protons.
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons.
0
What are the differences between an atom of Nitrogen and an atom of Carbon. What is it that makes them unique elements?
An atom of carbon has: Protons= 6 Electrons= 6 Neutrons= 6. An atom of Nitrogen has: Protons= 7 Electrons= 7 Neutrons= 7. It is the differing number of protons which makes them unique elements.
Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons.
0
How does the current nuclear model describe an atom?
The nuclear model shows that an atom is made of a small nucleus of positive protons and neutral neutrons, it also has negatively charged electrons orbiting it in energy levels.
Students should be able to use the nuclear model to describe atoms.
0
How large is the radius of the nucleus of an atom in comparison to its total radius?
The radius of the nucleus of an atom compared to the total atoms radius is 1/10 000 of that of the atom (about 1 x 10 to the power -14 m).
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10 000 of that of the atom (about 1 x 10-14 m).
0
Where is the majority of the mass of the atom found?
The majority of the mass of the atom is found within the nucleus and is made up of protons and neutrons. Electrons have a negligible mass.
Almost all of the mass of an atom is in the nucleus.
0
What are the relative masses of each subatomic particle (proton, neutron and electron)?
The relative masses of the subatomic particles are: Proton = 1 Neutron = 1 Electron = negligible (very small)
The relative masses of protons, neutrons and electrons are: Proton 1 Neutron 1 Electron Very small
0
What does the mass number of an atom tell us about that atom?
The mass number tells us the total number of protons and neutrons within that atom.
The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass number.
0
What is an isotope?
An isotope is an atom of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
0
What do the individual tiles of the periodic table tell us?
The individual tiles of the periodic table tell us the chemical symbol, Mass number, Atomic (Proton) number
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example: (periodic table tile for sodium with mass and atomic number)
0
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom of Cobalt. Mass number = 59 and Atomic number = 27
The total number of subatomic particles in cobalk are: Protons: 27 Electrons: 27 Neutrons: 32
Students should be able to calculate the numbers of protons, neutrons and electrons in an atom or ion, given its atomic number and mass number.
0
How large are atoms? a) 1 × 10-6 m b) 1 × 10-8 m c) 1 × 10-10 m
The size of atoms are 1 × 10-10 m
Students should be able to relate size and scale of atoms to objects in the physical world.
0
Why does chlorine have a mass number of 35.5?
The relative atomic mass of an element is an average value that takes account of the abundance of the isotopes of the element. Chlorine exists as 75% Cl35 and 25% Cl37, an average of this is taken.
The relative atomic mass of an element is an average value that takes account of the abundance of the isotopes of the element.
0
What is the relative atomic mass of bromine where there are two isotopes of Bromine, 50% Br-79 and 50% Br-81?
The relative atomic mass of bromine is 80, since (79 x 50) + (81 x 50) / 100 = 80.
Students should be able to calculate the relative atomic mass of an element given the percentage abundance of its isotopes.
0
What is the maximum number of electrons that can be held by each of the three inner most shells?
The maximum number of electrons are 2 in the inner most shell, 8 in the second shell and 8 in the third shell.
The electrons in an atom occupy the lowest available energy levels (innermost available shells).
0
What would a diagram of the electron structure of an atom of carbon look like?
A diagram of the electronic structure of carbon would have 2 electrons on inner most shell, 4 on the second shell.
The electronic structure of an atom can be represented by numbers or by a diagram. For example, the electronic structure of sodium is 2,8,1 or (electron arrangement using dot-and-cross diagram) showing two electrons in the lowest energy level, eight in the second energy level and one in the third energy level.
0
Why is carbon found in group 4 of the periodic table?
Carbon is found in group 4 because there are 4 electrons in its outermost shell.
(WS) Students should be able to represent the electronic structures of the first twenty elements of the periodic table in both forms.
0
How big is the total radius of an average atom?
The total radius of an average atom is 0.1 nm (1 x 10-10 m).
Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 0.1 nm (1 x 10-10 m).
0
How are elements ordered in the periodic table?
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic (proton) number and so that elements with similar properties are in columns, known as groups. The table is called a periodic table because similar properties occur at regular intervals.
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic (proton) number and so that elements with similar properties are in columns, known as groups. The table is called a periodic table because similar properties occur at regular intervals.
0
Metals react to form __________ charged ions
Metals react to form POSITIVELY charged ions
Elements that react to form positive ions are metals.
0
In terms of electron structure, how are elements in the same group similar?
Elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outer shell (outer electrons) and this gives them similar chemical properties.
Elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outer shell (outer electrons) and this gives them similar chemical properties.
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Non-metals react to form __________ charged ions
Non-metals react to form NEGATIVELY charged ions
Elements that do not form positive ions are non-metals.
0
What does the group and period of an element tell us about its electron structure?
Period = Total number of electron shells. Group = Total number of electrons found in the outermost shell
Students should be able to explain how the position of an element in the periodic table is related to the arrangement of electrons in its atoms and hence to its atomic number
0
Are there more metals or non-metal elements on the periodic table?
The majority of elements are metals.
The majority of elements are metals.
0
Predict how the reactivity of caesium would compare to lithium
Caesium would be far more reactive than lithium because it is further down group 1 so it experiences more shielding from the nucleus
Students should be able to predict possible reactions and probable reactivity of elements from their positions in the periodic table.
0
How were elements in early periodic tables ordered?
By atomic mass
Before the discovery of protons, neutrons and electrons, scientists attempted to classify the elements by arranging them in order of their atomic weights.
0
Why were early attempts at ordering the periodic table by atomic mass unsuccessful?
As this caused certain elements to be incorrectly placed in groups with elements with very different propertiesno.
The early periodic tables were incomplete and some elements were placed in inappropriate groups if the strict order of atomic weights was followed.
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How did Mendeleev predict the existence of several undiscovered elements when designing his periodic table?
He identified where there was no existing element that fit the pattern of his periodic table, so left gaps in for them.
Mendeleev overcame some of the problems by leaving gaps for elements that he thought had not been discovered and in some places changed the order based on atomic weights.
0
How are metals and non-metal elements arranged on the periodic table
Metals are found to the left and towards the bottom of the periodic table. Non-metals are found towards the right and top of the periodic table.
Metals are found to the left and towards the bottom of the periodic table. Non-metals are found towards the right and top of the periodic table.
0
What steps were involved in the development of the periodic table?
1. Groups of three elements with similar properties called triads. 2. More accurate atomic weights 3. Newlands table in atomic weight (law of octaves) 4. Mendeleev who left gaps putting them in groups with similar properties
Students should be able to describe these steps in the development of the periodic table.
0
Which group of the periodic table are also named the nobel gases?
Group 0
The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble gases.
0
Describe in terms of electron structure as to why all of the nobel gases are unreactive
They all have a full outer shell of electrons, as a result do not easily form molecules
The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are unreactive and do not easily form molecules because their atoms have stable arrangements of electrons.
0
What is the same about the electron structure for all elements in Group 0 (noble gases)?
All elements in Group 0 (noble gases) have a full outer shell of electrons.
The noble gases have eight electrons in their outer shell, except for helium, which has only two electrons.
0
Describe the trend in boiling point down group 0
Boiling points increase with relative atomic mass (as you go down the group)
The boiling points of the noble gases increase with increasing relative atomic mass (going down the group).
0
What is the common name given to the group 1 elements?
Alkali metals
The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are known as the alkali metals and have characteristic properties because of the single electron in their outer shell.
0
Give 4 common properties of transition metal elements.
Heat conductor, Electrical conductor, Lustrous (shiny), Dense, High melting and boiling point, High tensile strength, Strong, Hard
Students should be able to explain the differences between metals and non-metals on the basis of their characteristic physical and chemical properties. This links to Group 0, Group 1, Group 7 and Bonding, structure and the properties of matter
0
Write a word equation for the reaction of sodium with chlorine.
Sodium + Chlorine -> Sodium Chloride
Students should be able to describe the reactions of the first three alkali metals with oxygen, chlorine and water.
0
Describe the trend in reactivity in group 1 as you go down the group
Reactivity of elements in group 1 increases as you go down the group (Lithium = least reactive, Francium = most reactive)
In Group 1, the reactivity of the elements increases going down the group.
0
For elements in Group 1, what do the properties depend on?
Properties of the elements in Group 1 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
Students should be able to explain how properties of the elements in Group 1 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
0
Explain why elements become more reactive the further you go down group 1
Elements in group 1 react by giving up their outermost electron. The further down the group you go the weaker the attraction between the nucleus of the atom and the outermost electron, as well as a greater amount of shielding. Therefore the electron is given up more easily.
Students should be able to predict properties from given trends down the group.
0
What are the transition elements?
Metals with similar properties which are different from those of the elements in Group 1.
The transition elements are metals with similar properties which are different from those of the elements in Group 1.
0
Compare the properties of transition metal elements with those of the group 1 elements.
Group 1 metals are soft, highly reactive to oxygen and water, form alkali solutions, are less dense than group 2 metals. Group 2 metals are harder, less reactive.
Students should be able to describe the difference compared with Group 1 in melting points, densities, strength, hardness and reactivity with oxygen, water and halogens.
0
Give examples of 3 transition metals
Any three from the transition block eg. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
Students should be able to exemplify these general properties by reference to Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
0
What is the common name given to the group 7 elements?
The halogens
The elements in Group 7 of the periodic table are known as the halogens and have similar reactions because they all have seven electrons in their outer shell.
0
Describe the trend in boiling point and melting point of elements as you go down group 7?
As you go down group 7, the melting and boiling points of the elements increases.
In Group 7, the further down the group an element is the higher its relative molecular mass, melting point and boiling point.
0
Describe the trend in reactivity of elements as you go down group 7?
As you go down group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases.
In Group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases going down the group.
0
Write a word equation for the reaction between sodium chloride and fluorine. What type of reaction is this?
Sodium chloride Fluorine -> Sodium Fluoride Chlorine. This is a displacement reaction as the more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen from its compound.
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from an aqueous solution of its salt.
0
In terms of electron structure, whAt do all group 7 elements share in common?
They all have 7 electrons in their outermost shell
Students should be able to explain how properties of the elements in Group 7 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
0
List the elements of group 7 in order of reactivity.
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine
Students should be able to predict properties from given trends down the group.
0
Many transition elements are also useful as catalysts. What is a catalyst?
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up itself.
Many transition elements have ions with different charges, form coloured compounds and are useful as catalysts.
0
List the general properties of compounds of transition elements
Students should be able to exemplify these general properties by reference to compounds of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
0
How can different atoms interact with each to gain a full outer shell of electrons.
Atoms can gain, lose or share electrons. (Metals on their own will delocalise their outer electron(s).)
There are three types of strong chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic. ALTERNATIVE activity - independent thinking.
0
What are the three types of chemical bonding?
Ionic, Metallic and Covalent
There are three types of strong chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic.
0
Name the type of attraction between particles in an ionic bond
Electrostatic attraction (attraction between oppositely charged particles)
For ionic bonding the particles are oppositely charged ions.
0
In terms of electrons, how are covalent bonds formed?
When two non-metal atoms share electrons to form a bond
For covalent bonding the particles are atoms which share pairs of electrons.
0
Metallic bonds have delocalised electrons. What are delocalised electrons?
Electrons in a molecule, ion or solid metal that are not associated with a single atom
For metallic bonding the particles are atoms which share delocalised electrons.
0
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds formed from ________ combined with ___________.
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds formed from METALS combined with NON-METALS.
Ionic bonding occurs in compounds formed from metals combined with non-metals.
0
Covalent bonding occurs when _____________ atoms bond together.
Covalent bonding occurs when NON-METAL atoms bond together.
Covalent bonding occurs in most non-metallic elements and in compounds of non-metals.
0
Metallic bonding occurs between atoms of __________ elements.
Metallic bonding occurs between atoms of METAL elements.
Metallic bonding occurs in metallic elements and alloys.
0
What is chemical bonding?
chemical bonding is where atoms are held together because of electrostatic forces caused by the transfer or sharing of electrons.
Students should be able to explain chemical bonding in terms of electrostatic forces and the transfer or sharing of electrons.
0
Describe the transfer of electrons in an ionic bond
Electrons are donated from the metal element in order to complete the outer shell of the non-metal element
When a metal atom reacts with a non-metal atom, electrons in the outer shell of the metal atom are transferred.
0
When a metal atom become an ion it loses electrons. How does this effect its charge?
It becomes a positively charged ion.
Metal atoms lose electrons to become positively charged ions.
0
When a non-metal atom bonds ionically it gains electrons. How does this effect its charge?
It becomes a negatively charged ion.
Non-metal atoms gain electrons to become negatively charged ions.
0
What is the electronic structure of ions produced by group 1,2 metals and group 6,7 non metals?
They have full outside shells of electrons giving them a stable electronic configuration, the same as a noble gas.
The ions produced by metals in Groups 1 and 2 and by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7 have the electronic structure of a noble gas (Group 0).
0
How could you show the formation of an ionic compound using a dot and cross diagram?
Showing outer electrons only. Crosses for one element and dots for the other. Show transfer of electrons on shell. Use brackets to show the overall charge of the ions formed.
The electron transfer during the formation of an ionic compound can be represented by a dot and cross diagram. E.g. for sodium chloride.
0
Draw a dot cross diagram to show the ionic bond in sodium chloride.
Diagram: Sodium - Electron strucuture represented in square brackets, with a 1 charge on the top right outside the bracket. . It's one outer shell electron removed. Chlorine - Electron strucuture represented in square brackets, with a -1 charge on the top right outside the bracket. One extra electron represented as either a dot or cross shown to represent the electron gained from sodium.
Students should be able to draw dot and cross diagrams for ionic compounds formed by metals in Groups 1 and 2 with non-metals in Groups 6 and 7.
0
What charge do ions of elements from the following groups form 1) Group 1 2) Group 2 3) Group 6 4) Group 7
1) Group 1 = +1 ion 2) Group 2 = +2 ion 3) Group 6 = -2 ion 4) Group 7 = -1 ion
The charge on the ions produced by metals in Groups 1 and 2 and by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7 relates to the group number of the element in the periodic table.
0
Explain why potassium chloride is KCl but potassium oxide is K2O
The overall charge of an ionic compound will always be neutral. Potassium forms an ion with a 1 charge, so will bond in a 1:1 ratio chlorine as chlorine forms a -1 ion. Oxygen on the other hand forms a -2 ion, so for each Oxygen 2 potassiums would be needed to neutralise the charge.
Students should be able to work out the charge on the ions of metals and non-metals from the group number of the element, limited to the metals in Groups 1 and 2, and non-metals in Groups 6 and 7.
0
What is an ionic compound?
A giant structure of ions
An ionic compound is a giant structure of ions.
0
What do we call the attraction between oppositely charged ions?
Electrostatic attraction
Ionic compounds are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions.
0
Describe the structure of a giant ionic lattice.
It is a 'lattice' because the arrangement is a regular one and 'giant' because the arrangement is repeated many times with large numbers of ions.
These forces act in all directions in the lattice: this is called ionic bonding.
0
What two models can be used to represent giant ionic structures?
Ball and stick and charged ion ionic lattice
The structure of sodium chloride can be represented in the following forms: ball and stick giant lattice and charged ion ionic lattice.
0
Give a limitation of each the ball and stick model and charged ion ionic lattice models for representing ionic bonds.
Ball and stick model: - The ions are actually packed closer together - Gives a false image of bond direction when is only electrostatic attraction Charged ion ionic lattice model: - Difficult to see the arrangement of ions in 3D.
Students should be able to describe the limitations of using dot and cross, ball and stick, two and three-dimensional diagrams to represent a giant ionic structure.
0
Determine the empirical formulae of a compound given the ions: a) Na+ and N3- b) Al3+ and O2-
a) Na3N b) Al2O3
Students should be able to work out the empirical formula of an ionic compound from a given model or diagram that shows the ions in the structure.
0
Draw out a dot cross diagram to show the ionic bond formed in the compound sodium chloride.
The sodium ion has an electon pattern of (2,8) and is represented in square brackets with a + charge in the top right corner, as a consequence of having lost an electron from its outer shell. This is then placed next to the chloride ion, which has an electron pattern of (2,8,8) and is also represented in square bracket, but with a - charge in the top right corner, due to it gaining an electron.
Students should be familiar with the structure of sodium chloride but do not need to know the structures of other ionic compounds.
0
What are covalent bonds?
Strong bonds that form when atoms share pairs of electrons
When atoms share pairs of electrons, they form covalent bonds. These bonds between atoms are strong.
0
What type of substances have covalent bonds?
small molecules
Covalently bonded substances may consist of small molecules.
0
What are the names of the following substances CO2 H2O H2 Cl2
Carbon dioxide water hydrogen chlroine
Students should be able to recognise common substances that consist of small molecules from their chemical formula.
0
Give an example of large molecules with covalent bonds
Polymers
Some covalently bonded substances have very large molecules, such as polymers.
0
Give two examples of substances that have giant covalent structures
diamond graphite silicon dioxide
Some covalently bonded substances have giant covalent structures, such as diamond and silicon dioxide.
0
List three ways to represent covalent bonds in molecules
dot and cross diagrams ball and stick diagrams display formula
The covalent bonds in molecules and giant structures can be represented in the following forms: using dot-and-cross diagram, ball-and-stick diagram or displayed formula)
0
How are polymers commonly represented?
Polymers can be represented using displayed formulae, where n is a large number.
Polymers can be represented using displayed formulae, where n is a large number.
0
Draw dot and cross diagrams for the molecules of hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, water, ammonia and methane look like?
Students should be able to draw dot and cross diagrams for the molecules of hydrogen, chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen chloride, water, ammonia and methane
0
How would you draw a single covalent bond?
single line between atoms
Students should be able to represent the covalent bonds in small molecules, in the repeating units of polymers and in part of giant covalent structures, using a line to represent a single bond
0
What are the limitations of using dot and cross, ball and stick, 2D and 3D diagrams to represent substances?
dot and cross, ball and stick do not show orginatation in space.
Students should be able to describe the limitations of using dot and cross, ball and stick, two and three-dimensional diagrams to represent molecules or giant structures
0
What is the structure of a metal like?
Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern.
Metals consist of giant structures of atoms arranged in a regular pattern.
0
How are the electrons in the outer shell of metal atoms arranged?
The electrons in the outer shell of metal atoms are delocalised and so are free to move through the whole structure.
The electrons in the outer shell of metal atoms are delocalised and so are free to move through the whole structure.
0
Why are metallic bonds so strong?
The sharing of delocalised electrons gives rise to strong metallic bonds. The bonding in metals may be represented in the following form: (diagram)
The sharing of delocalised electrons gives rise to strong metallic bonds. The bonding in metals may be represented in the following form: (diagram)
0
Describe the structure of metallic bonding?
positive atoms surrounded by negatively charged delocalised electrons
Students should be able to recognise substances as metallic giant structures from diagrams showing their bonding.
0
When compared with the properties of materials, do atoms have the same bulk properties?
Atoms themselves do not have the bulk properties of materials.
Students should be able to recognise that atoms themselves do not have the bulk properties of materials
0
1. How do a metal and non-metal bond? 2. How do two non-metals bond?
1. ionic bonding by losing/gaining electrons. 2. covalent bonding by sharing pairs of electrons.
Students should be able to describe and explain the bonding in ionic and simple covalent bonding.
0
Why are metals good conductors of electricity?
Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised electrons in the metal carry electrical charge through the metal.
Metals are good conductors of electricity because the delocalised electrons in the metal carry electrical charge through the metal.
0
In pure metals atoms are arranged in layers. What property does this give them?
It causes them to be malleable (means they can be bent and shaped).
In pure metals, atoms are arranged in layers, which allows metals to be bent and shaped.
0
Why are metals good conductors of thermal energy?
Metals are good conductors of thermal energy because energy is transferred by the delocalised electrons.
Metals are good conductors of thermal energy because energy is transferred by the delocalised electrons.
0
Why are pure metals often mixed with other metals or carbon?
Pure metals are too soft for many uses and so are mixed with other metals to make alloys which are harder.
Pure metals are too soft for many uses and so are mixed with other metals to make alloys which are harder.
0
Why are alloys harder than pure metals?
Alloys are harder than pure metals as alloys contain atoms of different sizes. This causes distortion of the layers of atoms compared with the regular struccture of a pure metal. The regular structure in a pure metal allows the layers to slide over one another.
Students should be able to explain why alloys are harder than pure metals in terms of distortion of the layers of atoms in the structure of a pure metal.
0
Describe the structure of an ionic compound?
Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in which there are strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all directions between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in which there are strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all directions between oppositely charged ions.
0
Explain why ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points?
These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many strong bonds.
These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many strong bonds.
0
Under what conditions are ionic compounds able to conduct electricity?
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can flow.
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can flow.
0
What are the structures of different ionic compounds?
Need to know the structure of sodium chloride.
Knowledge of the structures of specific ionic compounds other than sodium chloride is not required.
0
Substances that consist of small molecules are most commonly which states of matter at room temperature?
They tend to have lower boiling points, meaning they commonly exist at room temperature either as gases or liquids.
Substances that consist of small molecules are usually gases or liquids that have relatively low melting points and boiling points.
0
How does the size of a molecule affect the size of its intermolecular force?
The larger the molecule the greater the size of its intermolecular force. Hence larger molecules tend to have higher melting and boiling points.
The intermolecular forces increase with the size of the molecules, so larger molecules have higher melting and boiling points.
0
Explain why substances that consist of small molecules often have low boiling and melting points
Smaller molecules tend to have weaker intermolecular forces of attraction. This means only small amounts of energy are required to overcome the intermolecular forces that hold molecules of that substance together.
These substances have only weak forces between the molecules (intermolecular forces).
0
Why are covalent compounds unable to conduct electricity?
Because covalent molecules carry no overall charge
These substances do not conduct electricity because the molecules do not have an overall electric charge.
0
What is the difference between intermolecular forces and intramolecular forces?
Intermolecular forces are the forces of attraction between different molecules of the same substance. Intramolecular forces are the bonds between atoms of the same molecule eg. ionic or covalent bonds.
It is these intermolecular forces that are overcome, not the covalent bonds, when the substance melts or boils.
0
Which is stronger: A covalent bond or intermolecular force?
Intermolecular forces are weak when compared with covalent bonds and explain the bulk properties of molecular substances.
Students should be able to use the idea that intermolecular forces are weak compared with covalent bonds to explain the bulk properties of molecular substances.
0
Why is diamond so hard, in terms of its structure and bonding?
each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms in a giant covalent structure, so diamond is very hard, has a very high melting point and does not conduct electricity.
Students should be able to explain the properties of diamond in terms of its structure and bonding.
0
Why do metals tend to have high melting and boiling points?
Metals have giant structures of atoms with strong metallic bonding. This means that most metals have high melting and boiling points.
Metals have giant structures of atoms with strong metallic bonding. This means that most metals have high melting and boiling points.
0
How many bonds does each carbon atom form in graphite and how does this impact it's structure?
In graphite, each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms, forming layers of hexagonal rings which have no covalent bonds between the layers.
In graphite, each carbon atom forms three covalent bonds with three other carbon atoms, forming layers of hexagonal rings which have no covalent bonds between the layers.
0
What happens to the spare electron that remains unused in a covalent bond in graphite?
It becomes delocalised (shared between atoms)
In graphite, one electron from each carbon atom is delocalised.
0
Why do giant covalent structures have very high melting and boiling points?
Their covalent bonds must be overcome in order for them to melt or boil, meaning large amounts of energy are required..
These bonds must be overcome to melt or boil these substances.
0
Why is graphite soft and slippery?
Because individual layer of graphite are only held together by weak intermolecular forces, allowing them to easily slide away from each other.
Students should be able to explain the properties of graphite in terms of its structure and bonding.
0
How is graphite similar to metals?
Graphite is similar to metals in that is has delocalised electrons.
Students should know that graphite is similar to metals in that it has delocalised electrons.
0
What makes graphene useful in electronics and composites?
Graphene is a single layer of graphite and has properties that make it useful in electronics and composites.
Graphene is a single layer of graphite and has properties that make it useful in electronics and composites.
0
What are the properties of carbon nanotubes and what do their properties make them useful for?
Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes with very high length to diameter ratios. Their properties make them useful for nanotechnology, electronics and materials.
Carbon nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes with very high length to diameter ratios. Their properties make them useful for nanotechnology, electronics and materials.
0
What are the properties of graphene in terms of its structure and bonding?
- One atom thick, so is 2D in structure. - Strong, as each layer of graphene is held together by strong covalent bonds. - Able to conduct electricity and heat, due to each carbon giving up a delocalised electron.
Students should be able to explain the properties of graphene in terms of its structure and bonding.
0
What are fullerenes and what is their structure?
Fullerenes are molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes. The structure of fullerenes is based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms but they may also contain rings with five or seven carbon atoms.
Fullerenes are molecules of carbon atoms with hollow shapes. The structure of fullerenes is based on hexagonal rings of carbon atoms but they may also contain rings with five or seven carbon atoms.
0
Name three uses of fullerenes?
Fullerenes can be used as carbon nanotubes to reinforce graphite in tennis rackets, semiconductors in electrical circuits, and as nanotubes as a container from transporting a drug in the body.
Students should be able to give examples of the uses of fullerenes, including carbon nanotubes.
0
Diamond, graphite and fullerenes are all examples of what type of structure?
Diamond, graphite and fullerenes are all examples of giant covalent structures
Substances that consist of giant covalent structures are solids with very high melting points.
0
How many bonds can an individual atom of carbon form? How many bonds does each carbon form in an atom of a) Diamond b) Graphite
A single carbon atom can form a maximum of four possible bonds. a) In diamond each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms. b) In graphite each carbon atom is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms.
In diamond, each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds with other carbon atoms in a giant covalent structure, so diamond is very hard, has a very high melting point and does not conduct electricity.
0
Molecules of diamond, graphite and fullerenes are all held together by what type of bonds?
Covalent bonds
All of the atoms in these structures are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds.
0
Which giant covalent structures are made only from carbon?
Diamond and graphite (forms of carbon) and silicon dioxide (silica) are examples of giant covalent structures.
Diamond and graphite (forms of carbon) and silicon dioxide (silica) are examples of giant covalent structures.
0
What was the first fullerene to be discovered and what is its shape?
The first fullerene to be discovered was Buckminsterfullerene (C60) which has a spherical shape.
The first fullerene to be discovered was Buckminsterfullerene (C60) which has a spherical shape.
0
What sort of structures does nanoscience refer to?
Nanoscience refers to structures that are 1-100 nm in size, of the order of a few hundred atoms.
Nanoscience refers to structures that are 1?100 nm in size, of the order of a few hundred atoms.
0
What is the size of a fine particle and which is smaller, nanoparticles or fine particles?
Nanoparticles, are smaller than fine particles (PM2.5), which have diameters between 100 and 2500 nm (1 x 10-7 m and 2.5 x 10-6 m).
Nanoparticles, are smaller than fine particles (PM2.5), which have diameters between 100 and 2500 nm (1 x 10-7 m and 2.5 x 10-6 m).
0
What is the diameter of coarse particles, such as dust?
Coarse particles (PM10) have diameters between 1 x 10-5 m and 2.5 x 10-6 m. Coarse particles are often referred to as dust.
Coarse particles (PM10) have diameters between 1 x 10-5 m and 2.5 x 10-6 m. Coarse particles are often referred to as dust.
0
What happens to the size of the surface area to volume ratio of a cube is you decrease the size of the sides by a factor or 10?
As the side of cube decreases by a factor of 10 the surface area to volume ratio increases by a factor of 10.
As the side of cube decreases by a factor of 10 the surface area to volume ratio increases by a factor of 10.
0
Why are the properties of nanoparticles different from those for the same materials in bulk?
Nanoparticles may have properties different from those for the same materials in bulk because of their high surface area to volume ratio. It may also mean that smaller quantities are needed to be effective than for materials with normal particle sizes.
Nanoparticles may have properties different from those for the same materials in bulk because of their high surface area to volume ratio. It may also mean that smaller quantities are needed to be effective than for materials with normal particle sizes.
0
How do nanoparticles compare in size to individual atoms?
Nanoparticles are made of up to 1000 atoms or molecules, therefore their size is larger than that of an atom.
Students should be able to compare ?nano? dimensions to typical dimensions of atoms and molecules.
0
What are the main applications of nanoparticles?
Nanoparticles have many applications in medicine, in electronics, in cosmetics and sun creams, as deodorants, and as catalysts.
Nanoparticles have many applications in medicine, in electronics, in cosmetics and sun creams, as deodorants, and as catalysts. New applications for nanoparticulate materials are an important area of research.
0
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using nanoparticles?
The advantages of nanoparticles are endless as they link to many new technilogies both commercially and medically however there are disadvantages as well. There are some concerns that nanoparticles may be toxic to people. They may be able to enter the brain from the bloodstream and cause harm. Some people think more tests should take place before nanoparticles of a material are used on a wider scale.
Students should consider advantages and disadvantages of the applications of these nanoparticulate materials, but do not need to know specific examples or properties other than those specified.
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What sort of molecules are polymers?
Polymers are very large molecules.
Polymers are very large molecules.
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What two monomers form polyester?
ethane diol and hexanedioic acid polymerise to produce a polyester.
For example: ethane diol and hexanedioic acid polymerise to produce a polyester.
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What type of bond links individual monomers together when forming a polymer?
The atoms in the polymer molecules are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds.
The atoms in the polymer molecules are linked to other atoms by strong covalent bonds.
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What type of hydrocarbons are used to make polymers?
Alkenes can be used to make polymers such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene) by addition polymerisation.
Alkenes can be used to make polymers such as poly(ethene) and poly(propene) by addition polymerisation. Use models to represent addition polymerisation.
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Why are polymers solids at room temperature?
The intermolecular forces between polymer molecules are relatively strong and so these substances are solids at room temperature.(Remember the greater the size of a molecule the greater the strength its intermolecular forces)
The intermolecular forces between polymer molecules are relatively strong and so these substances are solids at room temperature.
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What happens in an addition polymerisation reaction?
In addition polymerisation reactions, many small molecules (monomers) join together to form very large molecules (polymers).
In addition polymerisation reactions, many small molecules (monomers) join together to form very large molecules (polymers).
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How is a polymer of poly(ethene) produced from ethene? (Show using a diagram)
A polymer of poly(ethene) can be made by many monomers of ethene joining together to make a long chain of polymers. The diagram would show a C=C in the monomer but only a single bond in the polymer e.g. nCH2=CH2 --> [-CH2CH2-]n
For example (displayed formula showing ethene monomer becoming poly(ethene)).
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(Chem only) How is the structure of the repeated unit of an addition polymer related to the monomer?
In addition polymers the repeating unit has the same atoms as the monomer because no other molecule is formed in the reaction.
In addition polymers the repeating unit has the same atoms as the monomer because no other molecule is formed in the reaction.
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(Chem only) How can you identify if you have a polymer or a monomer structure?
addition polymers and monomers can be identified from diagrams by the presence of the functional group C=C in the monomers
Students should be able to recognise addition polymers and monomers from diagrams in the forms shown and from the presence of the functional group C=C in the monomers
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(Chem only) What occurs during a condensation polymersiation reaction?
When monomers with two functional groups react they join together, usually losing small molecules such as water, and so the reactions are called condensation reactions.
When these types of monomers react they join together, usually losing small molecules such as water, and so the reactions are called condensation reactions. Use models to represent condensation polymerisation.
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(Chem only) How many functional groups does each monomer have in the simplest condensation polymerisation reactions?
The simplest polymers are produced from two different monomers with two of the same functional groups on each monomer.
The simplest polymers are produced from two different monomers with two of the same functional groups on each monomer.
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(Chem only) What are the basic principles of condensation polymersiation? (refer to functional groups and repeating units in your answer)
The basic principles of condensation polymerisation are that each monomer has two functional groups and the repeat units are made up of at least two different monomers in alternating sequence
Students should be able to explain the basic principles of condensation polymerisation by reference to the functional groups in the monomers and the repeating units in the polymers.
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(Chem only) When does condensation polymerisation occur?
Condensation polymerisation involves monomers with two functional groups.
Condensation polymerisation involves monomers with two functional groups.
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(Chem only) What are the monomers that form the following naturally occuring polymers? 1. proteins 2. starch 3. cellulose
(HT only) The monomers that form the naturally occuring polymers are: 1. proteins = amino acids 2. starch = glucose 3. cellulose = glucose
Students should be able to name the types of monomers from which these naturally occurring polymers are made. (HT only)
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(Chem only) What type of polymerisation reaction occurs when amino acids react to form polypeptides? (Include a reason why)
(HT only) Amino acids react by condensation polymerisation to produce polypeptides, this is because amino acids have two different functional groups in one molecule.
Amino acids have two different functional groups in a molecule. Amino acids react by condensation polymerisation to produce polypeptides. (HT only)
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(Chem only) What would the equation looks like for the polymerisation of glycine?
(HT only) n NCH COOH --> [-HNCH2COO-]n H2O.
For example: glycine is H NCH COOH and polymerises to produce the polypeptide (-HNCH2COO-) and n H2O. (HT only)
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(Chem only) How are proteins an example of a condensation polymer?
(HT only) Proteins are an example of a condensation polymer because Different amino acids (with two functional groups) can be combined in the same chain to produce proteins.
Different amino acids can be combined in the same chain to produce proteins. (HT only)
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(Chem only) What is DNA and what is its function?
(HT only) DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule essential for life. DNA encodes genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms and viruses.
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a large molecule essential for life. DNA encodes genetic instructions for the development and functioning of living organisms and viruses. (HT only)
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(Chem only) Why is the structure of DNA described as a polymer?
(HT only) Most DNA molecules are two polymer chains, made from four different monomers called nucleotides, in the form of a double helix.
Most DNA molecules are two polymer chains, made from four different monomers called nucleotides, in the form of a double helix. (HT only)
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(Chem only) What are the other naturally occuring polymers that are important for life processes?
(HT only) Other naturally occurring polymers important for life include proteins, starch and cellulose.
Other naturally occurring polymers important for life include proteins, starch and cellulose. (HT only)
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What is the law of the conservation of mass?
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants.
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants.
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Why must we ensure that chemical equations are balanced?
To accurately represent that no atoms are being made or lost during a chemical reaction, they are just converting from one form to another.
This means that chemical reactions can be represented by symbol equations which are balanced in terms of the numbers of atoms of each element involved on both sides of the equation.
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What do the multipliers in normal script before a chemical formula represent? Eg 2MgO
The normal script numbers before a chemical formula represent you have that many of that particular atom or molecule. In the example 2MgO, the 2 represents that there are two molecules of MgO
Students should understand the use of the multipliers in equations in normal script before a formula and in subscript within a formula.
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How do we calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound?
The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.
The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.
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Why must the total relative formula mass of all of the reactants equal that of all of the products made?
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants. Therefore the total atoms before and after a chemical reaction must be the same.
In a balanced chemical equation, the sum of the relative formula masses of the reactants in the quantities shown equals the sum of the relative formula masses of the products in the quantities shown.
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When a gas is produced in a chemical reaction, why would the mass of the products appear to be less than that of the reactants?
The mass of the products will be reduced because the gas escapes into the surroundings. The total number of atoms will not have changed.
Some reactions may appear to involve a change in mass but this can usually be explained because a reactant or product is a gas and its mass has not been taken into account. For example: when a metal reacts with oxygen the mass of the oxide produced is greater than the mass of the metal or in thermal decompositions of metal carbonates carbon dioxide is produced and escapes into the atmosphere leaving the metal oxide as the only solid product.
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Explain why in the reaction below the mass of the products would be greater than that of the reactants 2Mg (s) O2 (g) -> 2MgO (s)
Because oxygen gas would not be accounted for when the mass of the reactants are recorded, yet form part of the solid MgO produced. Therefore giving an increase in mass, but no new atoms were created or destroyed within the reaction.
Students should be able to explain any observed changes in mass in non-enclosed systems during a chemical reaction given the balanced symbol equation for the reaction and explain these changes in terms of the particle model.
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What does the term uncertainty mean?
Whenever a measurement is made there is always some uncertainty about the result obtained.
Whenever a measurement is made there is always some uncertainty about the result obtained.
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How would you represent the distrubtion of results to make estimations of uncertainty?
To represent the distrubution of results and make estimations of uncertainty you should use error bars on a graph.
Students should be able to represent the distribution of results and make estimations of uncertainty
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A pippette has an uncertainty of /-0.01mL. It is used three times in a practical. What is the mean measure of uncertainty?
The uncertainty of a pippette that is used three times is = 3 x 0.01 = /- 0.03mL
Students should be able to use the range of a set of measurements about the mean as a measure of uncertainty.
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(HT only) Chemical amounts are measured in moles. What is the symbol of the unit for moles?
The symbol for the unit mole is mol.
Chemical amounts are measured in moles. The symbol for the unit mole is mol.
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(HT only)How can we calculate the mass of one mole of a substance?
The mass of one mole of a substance is equal to its relative formula mass in grams. Eg. CO2 Mr = 44 : so 1 Mole of CO2 = 44g
How the mass of one mole of a substance calculated.
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(HT only)If you have one mole each of two different substances, what will they share in common?
One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules or ions as one mole of any other substance.
One mole of a substance contains the same number of the stated particles, atoms, molecules or ions as one mole of any other substance.
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(HT only)What does Avogadro's constant represent?
The total number of particles/atoms/molecules/ions within one mole of a substance.
The number of atoms, molecules or ions in a mole of a given substance is the Avogadro constant.
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(HT only)What is the value of Avogadro's constant?
1 mole = 6.02 x 1023 particles/atoms/molecules/ions of a substance
The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 per mole.
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(HT only)Would there be any difference in the number of atoms in one mole of carbon (C) compared with the number of one mole of molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2)?
Measurement of amounts in moles can apply to atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, formulae and equations, for example that in one mole of carbon (C) the number of atoms is the same as the number of molecules in one mole of carbon dioxide (CO2).
Students should understand that the measurement of amounts in moles can apply to atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, formulae and equations, for example that in one mole of carbon (C) the number of atoms is the same as the number of molecules in one mole of carbon dioxide (CO2).
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(HT only)Calculate the mass of one mole of C2H6
The relative formula mass (Mr) of C2H6 = 30 Therefore the mass of 1 mol C2H6 = 30g
Students should be able to use the relative formula mass of a substance to calculate the number of moles in a given mass of that substance and vice versa.
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What units are used for the measurement of concentration of a solution?
The standard measures of concentration of a solution are: grams per dm3 (g/dm3) or moles per dm3 (mol/dm3)
Many chemical reactions take place in solutions. The concentration of a solution can be measured in mass per given volume of solution, eg grams per dm3 (g/dm3).
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What is the concentration of a solution that has 37g of solute dissolved in 100cm3? Give your answer in dm3.
The concentration would be 37g / 100cm3. To convert this to dm3 divide answer by 1000 = 0.0037g/dm3.
Students should be able to calculate the mass of solute in a given volume of solution of known concentration in terms of mass per given volume of solution
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(HT only) What is the equation that relates the mass of a solute, the volume of a solution and the concentration of the solution?
concentration of solution (g/dm3) = mass of a solute (g) / volume of solution (dm3)
Students should be able to (HT only) explain how the mass of a solute and the volume of a solution is related to the concentration of the solution.
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Why industrially is high atom economy important?
It is important for sustainable development and for economic reasons to use reactions with high atom economy.
It is important for sustainable development and for economic reasons to use reactions with high atom economy.
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(HT only)Balance the equation and calculate the mass of the reactants and products of the balanced symbol equation: H2O2 --> H20 02
2H2O2 --> 2H20 02 The mass of the reactants is 68, the mass of the reactants is also 68
The masses of reactants and products can be calculated from balanced symbol equations.
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(HT only)In the following equation: Mg 2HCI --> MgCI2 H2 What is the ratio of magnesium (Mg) atoms react in comparison to that of hydrochloric acid (HCl)?
1:2 This is because chemical equations can be interpreted in terms of moles. Mg + 2HCI --> MgCI2 + H2 The equation shows that one mole of magnesium (Mg) reacts with two moles of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
Chemical equations can be interpreted in terms of moles. For example: Mg + 2HCI --> MgCI2 + H2 shows that one mole of magnesium reacts with two moles of hydrochloric acid to produce one mole of magnesium chloride and one mole of hydrogen gas.
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(HT only)CaCO3 2HCl ---> CaCl2 CO2 H2O Use the above equation to determine the mass of carbon dioxide produced if you react 10g of calcium carbonate with an excess of hydrochloric acid?
4.4g of CO2 is produced
Students should be able to calculate the masses of substances shown in a balanced symbol equation
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(HT only)Calculate the mass of iron produced when 32g of iron (III) oxide is completely reduced by aluminium. The reaction is shown in the symbol equation: Fe2O3 2Al ? 2Fe Al2O3
When 32g of iron (III) oxide is reduced by aluminium 22.4g of iron is produced
Students should be able to calculate the masses of reactants and products from the balanced symbol equation and the mass of a given reactant or product.
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(HT only)How can you use the massess of reactants and products to balance a symbol equation?
The balancing numbers in a symbol equation can be calculated from the masses of reactants and products by converting the masses in grams to amounts in moles and converting the numbers of moles to simple whole number ratios.
The balancing numbers in a symbol equation can be calculated from the masses of reactants and products by converting the masses in grams to amounts in moles and converting the numbers of moles to simple whole number ratios.
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(HT only) Reactants Sb = 488g Cl2 = 426g Products SbCl3= 914g Complete a symbol equation for the reaction above using the masses to balance the equation.
2Sb + 3Cl2 ---> 2SbCl3
Students should be able to balance an equation given the masses of reactants and products.
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(HT only)How do you rearrange the moles equation to find the relative formulat mass? Moles = mass / RFM
The moles equation can be rearranged to find RFM = mass / moles
Students should be able to change the subject of a mathematical equation.
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(HT only)What is meant when a reactant is said to be in excess?
An excess reactant is any reactant in a chemical reaction with a greater amount than necessary to react completely with the all other reactants.
In a chemical reaction involving two reactants, it is common to use an excess of one of the reactants to ensure that all of the other reactant is used.
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What is meant when a reactant is described as a limiting reactant?
A limiting reactant is a reactant that when completely used up the reaction will cease. This is because it limits the amount of products that can be made.
The reactant that is completely used up is called the limiting reactant because it limits the amount of products.
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(HT only) 2H2 O2 --> 2H2O You react 10g of oxygen with 10g of hydrogen. Only 11.25g of product is made the rest of the reactants remain unused. Suggest why the full mass of reactants did not react. What is the leftover unreacted substance?
Oxygen is the limiting reactant in this example. Once all of the oxygen is used up the reaction will be unable to continue. Hydrogen therefore we would describe as being in excess, so the 8.75g of leftover reactant would be unused hydrogen that was not used up during the chemical reaction.
Students should be able to explain the effect of a limiting quantity of a reactant on the amount of products it is possible to obtain in terms of amounts in moles or masses in grams.
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(Chem only) Suggest why it is not always possible obtain the calculated amount of product from a reaction?
You may not always get the maximum yield because the reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible, some of the product may be lost when it is separated from the reaction mixture; or some of the reactants may react in ways different to the expected reaction.
Even though no atoms are gained or lost in a chemical reaction, it is not always possible to obtain the calculated amount of a product because: ??? the reaction may not go to completion because it is reversible ??? some of the product may be lost when it is separated from the reaction mixture; ? some of the reactants may react in ways different to the expected reaction.
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(Chem only) What does the term yield refer to?
The amount of product obtained
The amount of a product obtained is known as the yield.
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(Chem only) What is percentage yield?
When the actual yield obtained is compared with the maximum theoretical yield of a reaction is expressed as a percentage, it is called the percentage yield.
When compared with the maximum theoretical amount as a percentage, it is called the percentage yield. % Yield = Mass of product actually made / Maximum theoretical mass of product ? 100
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(Chem only) What is the formula for calculating percentage yield?
% Yield = Mass of product actually made / Maximum theoretical mass of product ? 100
Students should be able to calculate the percentage yield of a product from the actual yield of a reaction
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(Chem only) What mass of carbon dioxide is formed when 12 g of carbon is burned in air?
1.Write out the equation for the reaction. Make sure it is balanced. C O2 -> CO2 (Carbon is the known, carbon dioxide is the unknown) 2.Work out the relative masses of the substances needed in the calculation. Mass of carbon = 12, mass of carbon dioxide = 44 3.Convert the relative masses into the units in the question. Mass of carbon = 12 g, mass of carbon dioxide is 44 g 4.Find the ratio by dividing both numbers by the smallest number. For carbon 12 ? 12 = 1, for carbon dioxide 44 ? 12 = 3.67 5.Find the mass of the unknown by multiplying the mass of the known by the ratio of the unknown. 3.67 ? 12 = 44 g
(HT only) calculate the theoretical mass of a product from a given mass of reactant and the balanced equation for the reaction.
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(Chem only) What is atom economy a measure of?
The amount of starting materials that end up as useful products.
The atom economy (atom utilisation) is a measure of the amount of starting materials that end up as useful products.
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(Chem only) What is the formula for calculating percentage atom economy?
The percentage atom economy of a reaction is calculated using the balanced equation for the reaction as follows: Relative formula mass of desired product from equation / Sum of relative formula masses of all reactants from equation ? 100
The percentage atom economy of a reaction is calculated using the balanced equation for the reaction as follows: Relative formula mass of desired product from equation / Sum of relative formula masses of all reactants from equation ? 100
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(Chem only) Hydrazine (N2H4) is used in some rocket fuels. Two different methods can be used to manufacture hydrazine. The reactions are: NH2Cl NH3 ? N2H4 HCl 2NH3 H2O2 ? N2H4 2H2O Calculate the atom economy for each reaction
1) Mr of N2H4 = 32 2) Sum of Mr all reactants in equation 1= 68.5 3) (32 / 68.5 ) x100 46.7% 4) Sum of Mr all reactants in equation 2 = 68 5) (32/68) x 100 = 47%
Students should be able to calculate the atom economy of a reaction to form a desired product from the balanced equation
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(Chem only) How can a chemist in a chemical plant that makes rocket fuel prevent waste products being formed?
(HT) A chemist can prevent waste rocket fuel being formed by Choose a reaction with few/no other products.
(HT only) explain why a particular reaction pathway is chosen to produce a specified product given appropriate data such as atom economy (if not calculated), yield, rate, equilibrium position and usefulness of by-products.
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(Chem only) What is mol/dm3 the unit of measurement for?
mol/dm3 is a measure of concentration. It tells us how many moles of that substance you would find in a dm3
The concentration of a solution can be measured in mol/dm3.
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(Chem only) How can we calculate the number of moles of solute in a given volume of a solution?
The amount in moles of solute of solute in a given volume of solution can be calculated from its concentration in mol/dm3 multiplied by the volume of the solution in dm3.
The amount in moles of solute or the mass in grams of solute in a given volume of solution can be calculated from its concentration in mol/dm3.
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(Chem only) What technique can we use if the volumes of two solutions that react completely are known and the concentration of one solution is known, to calculate the concentration of the other solution.
A titration reaction
If the volumes of two solutions that react completely are known and the concentration of one solution is known, the concentration of the other solution can be calculated.
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(Chem only) How can we calculate the mass of a solute within a solution if we know the concentration in mol/dm3?
mass of solute = (concentration (mol dm-3) / relative formula mass) x volume of solution (dm3)
Students should be able to explain how the concentration of a solution in mol/dm3 is related to the mass of the solute and the volume of the solution
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(Chem only) What is the difference between a strong and weak acid?
A strong acid will fully dissociate from all of its H ions whereas a weak acid won't
Opportunities within titrations including to determine concentrations of strong acids and alkalis. (WS)
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(Chem only) Do all gases occupy the same volume?
Equal amounts in moles of gases occupy the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
Equal amounts in moles of gases occupy the same volume under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.
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(Chem only) What volume does one mole of any gas occupy at room temperature and pressure?
A single mole of any gas will occupy 24dm3
The volume of one mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure (20oC and 1 atmosphere pressure) is 24 dm3.
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(Chem only) How could you calculate the volume a gas would occupy if you were given the mass of gas made?
1) Calculate the total number of moles of that gas you have (Moles = Mass (g) / Mr) 2) Then calulate the volume that gas would occupy. Volume of gas (dm3) = Moles x 24
The volumes of gaseous reactants and products can be calculated from the balanced equation for the reaction.
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(Chem only) If you have 88g of CO2. What volume would it occupy?
1) Calculate moles first: moles = mass /Mr = 88/44 = 2 2) Calculate the volume of gas made: Volume of gas = Moles x 24 = 2x24 = 48dm3
Students should be able to calculate the volume of a gas at room temperature and pressure from its mass and relative formula mass
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(Chem only) In the reaction CH4 2O2 ? CO2 2H2O (at rtp) what volume of water vapour is produced when 2.4 dm3 of methane burns?
1) Rearrange volume equation for moles to find moles of methane reacting: moles (methane) = volume / 24 moles (methane) = 2.4 / 24 moles (methane) = 0.1 2) Identify molar ratio for reactants and products in question: 1 mole of methane products 2 moles of water, therefore 1:2 ratio 3) Deduce the moles of water using ratio: 0.1 x 2 = 0.2 moles 4) calculate volume of water vapour: volume of gas = moles x 24 volume of gas = 0.2 x 24 = 4.8dm3
Students should be able to calculate volumes of gaseous reactants and products from a balanced equation and a given volume of a gaseous reactant or product
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(Chem only) Rearrange the volume of gas equation to calculate the number of moles
Rearrange volume equation for moles to find moles of methane reacting: moles (methane) = volume / 24
Students should be able to change the subject of a mathematical equation.
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What does the reactivity of a metal depend on?
The reactivity of a metal is related to its tendency to form positive ions.
The reactivity of a metal is related to its tendency to form positive ions.
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How can the reactivity of group 1 metals be compared using a practical investigation?
Group 1 metal reactivity can be compared by observing their reactivity with water and dilute acids qualitatively by looking at the amount of gas produced using a magnifying glass or quantitatively by measuring the temperature changes.
The metals potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, order of reactivity is from their reactions with water and dilute acids.
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What happens when a metal reacts with oxygen?
Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides.
Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides.
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What happens to metals in an oxidation reaction?
In oxidation reactions metals gain oxygen and looses electrons.
The reactions are oxidation reactions because the metals gain oxygen.
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What is meant by the term 'reduction'?
Reduction is the loss of oxygen and gain of electrons.
Students should be able to explain reduction and oxidation in terms of loss or gain of oxygen.
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What happens in terms of electrons during reduction and oxidation reactions?
During oxidation reactions substances loose/donate electrons and in reduction reactions substanced gain electrons.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons and reduction is the gain of electrons.
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Why is potassium more reactive than lithium?
Potassium is more reactive than lithium because it can form a postive ion easier. This is because the attraction between the outside electron and the nuclues is far lower in potassium than lithium. This is because potassium is a bigger atom with more electron shells, creating more sheilding of the electrostatic attraction.
Students should be able to explain how the reactivity of metals with water or dilute acids is related to the tendency of the metal to form its positive ion
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What happens during a displacement reaction?
In a displacement reaction a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from a compound.
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from a compound.
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What would the independent, dependent and control variables be for a quantitative investigation into the reactivity of metals?
To investigate the reactivity of metals quantitatively the independent variable would be the type of metal. The dependent variable would be the temperature increase. The control variables would be the surface area of the metal, the volume and concentration of the water/acid, the temperature of the reactants and the mass of the metal.
Students should be able to deduce an order of reactivity of metals based on experimental results.
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Where in the reactivity series does carbon appear and which elements can be displaced by carbon?
The order of reactivity including non metals is: Pottassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold. Only elements below carbon in the reactivity series can be displaced by carbon.
The non-metals hydrogen and carbon are often included in the reactivity series.
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What conditions are standard when investigating the reactivity of metals with water and acids?
The reactions of metals with water and acids are limited to room temperature and do not include reactions with steam.
The reactions of metals with water and acids are limited to room temperature and do not include reactions with steam.
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What is the list of metals (and non-metals) in the reactivity series, from most reactive to least reactive?
Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold.
Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity in a reactivity series.
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How do each of the following metals react with each of water and dilute acids: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper?
Lithium, sodium and potassium have vigorous reactions with cold water and explosive reactions with dilute acids. Calcium, magnesium have less vigorous reactions with water and dilute acids but it is possible to see gas being produced. Zinc, iron and copper have far less vigorous reactions, decreasing in reactivity.
Students should be able to recall and describe the reactions, if any, of potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper with water or dilute acids and where appropriate, to place these metals in order of reactivity
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Write the ionic equation for the displacement reaction between copper ions and magnesium
The equation for the displacement reaction between copper ions and magnesium is: Cu2 Mg --> Mg2 Cu
Student should be able to write ionic equations for displacement reactions
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Why are metals such as gold found in the Earth as the metal itself?
Gold is found in the Earth as the metal itself as it is unreactive.
Unreactive metals such as gold are found in the Earth as the metal itself but most metals are found as compounds that require chemical reactions to extract the metal.
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How can metals less reactive than carbon be extracted from their oxides?
Metals less reactive than carbon can be extracted from their oxides by reduction with carbon.
Metals less reactive than carbon can be extracted from their oxides by reduction with carbon.
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What is meant by 'reduction' in terms of oxygen?
Reduction involves the loss of oxygen.
Reduction involves the loss of oxygen.
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What substance can be used to extract the lesser reactive metals?
Carbon can be used to extract the lesser reactive metals.
Knowledge and understanding are limited to the reduction of oxides using carbon.
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What type of reaction is it when electrons are transferred from one species to another?
When electrons are transferred from one species to another this is called a redox reaction.
Knowledge of the details of processes used in the extraction of metals is not required.
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Identify the species that are oxidised and reduced in the half equations below: Cu2 Mg --> Mg2 Cu
The oxidation half equation is: Mg --> Mg2 2e- The reduction half equation is: Cu2 2e- --> Cu
Students should be able to identify in a given reaction, symbol equation or half equation which species are oxidised and which are reduced.
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What are the products when acids react with metals?
Acids react with some metals to produce salts and hydrogen.
Acids react with some metals to produce salts and hydrogen.
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(HT only) What type of reaction occurs when acids react with metals?
(HT) When acids react with metals there is a transfer of electrons so this is a redox reaction.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain in terms of gain or loss of electrons, that these are redox reactions
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(HT only) In a reaction between copper (II) oxide and carbon, where does each of oxidation and reduction happen?
Carbon is oxidised by gaining oxygen to form carbon dioxide. Copper (in CuO) is reduced by losing oxygen to form copper metal. Copper has changed from Cu2 (in CuO) to Cu(s) and so has gained electrons. Cu2 (aq) 2e-(aq) arrow Cu(s)
Students should be able to identify which species are oxidised and which are reduced in given chemical equations. (HT only)
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When an acid (such as hydrochloric acid) reacts with an alkali or a base (such as sodium hydroxide), what will the two products be?
When an acid reacts with an alkali or base it produces salts and water.
Acids are neutralised by alkalis (eg soluble metal hydroxides) and bases (eg insoluble metal hydroxides and metal oxides) to produce salts and water
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What products are made when an acid reacts with a metal carbonate?
Acids are neutralised by metal carbonates to produce salts, water and carbon dioxide.
Acids are neutralised by metal carbonates to produce salts, water and carbon dioxide.
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What factors affect the type of salt produced in a reaction between an acid and a base or alkali?
The particular salt produced in any reaction between an acid and a base or alkali depends on: - the acid used (hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, nitric acid produces nitrates, sulfuric acid produces sulfates) - the positive ions in the base, alkali or carbonate.
The particular salt produced in any reaction between an acid and a base or alkali depends on: - the acid used (hydrochloric acid produces chlorides, nitric acid produces nitrates, sulfuric acid produces sulfates) - the positive ions in the base, alkali or carbonate.
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What two products would be made when zinc oxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid?
The two products that would be made when zinc oxide reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid are zinc chloride and water.
Students should be able to predict products from given reactants
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What examples of solid insoluble substances react with acids to form soluble salts?
Soluble salts can be made from acids by reacting them with solid insoluble substances, such as metals, metal oxides, hydroxides or carbonates.
Soluble salts can be made from acids by reacting them with solid insoluble substances, such as metals, metal oxides, hydroxides or carbonates.
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When an excess of metal oxide reactant is added to an acid, how can the pure salt solution be collected?
The solid is added to the acid until no more reacts and the excess solid is filtered off to produce a solution of the salt.
(WS) The solid is added to the acid until no more reacts and the excess solid is filtered off to produce a solution of the salt.
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What process is used to produce solid soluble salts from salt solutions?
Salt solutions can be crystallised to produce solid salts.
Salt solutions can be crystallised to produce solid salts.
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What are the typical steps are involved in preparing a pure, dry sample of silver chloride from silver nitrate and sodium chloride?
Silver chloride is insoluble - you can see this from the table. You need a soluble silver salt and a soluble chloride salt to make it. Silver nitrate and sodium chloride are both soluble. When you mix their solutions together, you make soluble sodium nitrate and insoluble silver chloride: silver nitrate sodium chloride → sodium nitrate silver chloride AgNO3(aq) NaCl(aq) → NaNO3(aq) AgCl(s) The silver chloride appears as tiny particles suspended in the reaction mixture - it forms a precipitate. The precipitate can be filtered, washed with water on the filter paper, and then dried in an oven.
Students should be able to describe how to make pure, dry samples of named soluble salts from information provided.
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What would the formula be if the following ions reacted to form salts: a) Mg Cl- b) Cu2 S2- c) Fe2 I-
a) MgCl2 b) CuS c) FeI2
Students should be able to use the formulae of common ions to deduce the formulae of salts.
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In what way can universal indicator be used to measure the approximate pH of a solution?
Universal indicator is used to measure the approximate pH of a solution as when it is added to a solution strongly acidic solutions appear red, weakly acidic solutions appear orange/yellow, neutral solutions appear green, weakly alkaline solutions appear blue and strongly alkaline solutions appear purple.
(WS) Students should be able to describe the use of universal indicator or a wide range indicator to measure the approximate pH of a solution
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If a substance has the following pH is it classified as acid, alkali or neutral: 1) pH 3 2) pH 11 3) pH 7
1) pH 3 = acid 2) pH 11 = alkali 3) pH 7 = neutral
(WS) Students should be able to use the pH scale to identify acidic or alkaline solutions.
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What ions are produced in alkalis in aqueous solutions?
Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain hydroxide ions (OH-).
Aqueous solutions of alkalis contain hydroxide ions (OH-).
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What happens to strong acids in an aqueous solution in terms of ionisation?
A strong acid is completely ionised in aqueous solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids.
A strong acid is completely ionised in aqueous solution. Examples of strong acids are hydrochloric, nitric and sulfuric acids.
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What happens to weak acids in an aqueous solution in terms of ionisation?
A weak acid is only partially ionised in aqueous solution. Examples of weak acids are ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids.
A weak acid is only partially ionised in aqueous solution. Examples of weak acids are ethanoic, citric and carbonic acids.
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What ions are produced in acids in aqueous solutions?
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H ) in aqueous solutions.
Acids produce hydrogen ions (H ) in aqueous solutions.
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When an acid is stronger, what effect does this have on the pH?
For a given concentration of aqueous solutions, the stronger an acid, the lower the pH.
For a given concentration of aqueous solutions, the stronger an acid, the lower the pH.
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What happens to the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution when pH decreases by one unit?
As the pH decreases by one unit, the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution increases by a factor of 10.
As the pH decreases by one unit, the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution increases by a factor of 10.
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What is meant by 'dilute' and 'concentrated' (in terms of amount of substance) and 'weak acid' and 'strong acid' (in terms of the degree of ionisation)?
The strength of an acid is a measure of the degree of its ionisation - strong acids are fully ionised but weak acids are only partly ionised. Remember that the opposite of strong is weak. The concentration of an acid is a measure of the number of moles of acid in 1 dm3 of acid solution. For example, 2 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid is twice as concentrated as 1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid or 1 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid. Remember: the opposite of concentrated is dilute.
Students should be able to use and explain the terms dilute and concentrated (in terms of amount of substance), and weak and strong (in terms of the degree of ionisation) in relation to acids
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How is the reaction between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions to produce water presented as an equation?
This reaction can be represented by the equation: H (aq) OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
This reaction can be represented by the equation: H (aq) OH-(aq) -> H2O(l)
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How is water produced in a neutralisation reaction between an acid and an alkali in terms of ions?
In neutralisation reactions between an acid and an alkali, hydrogen ions react with hydroxide ions to produce water.
In neutralisation reactions between an acid and an alkali, hydrogen ions react with hydroxide ions to produce water.
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What piece of digital equipment can be used to measure the pH of a solution?
A digital pH probe can be used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution more accurately and precisely than universal indicator.
The pH scale, from 0 to 14, is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution, and can be measured using universal indicator or a pH probe.
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What pH values do each of acidic, alkaline and neutral solutions have?
A solution with pH 7 is neutral. Aqueous solutions of acids have pH values of less than 7 and aqueous solutions of alkalis have pH values greater than 7.
A solution with pH 7 is neutral. Aqueous solutions of acids have pH values of less than 7 and aqueous solutions of alkalis have pH values greater than 7.
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A sample of vinegar contains 0.1 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid. What is its concentration in g/dm3? (The relative formula mass, Mr, of ethanoic acid is 60)
concentration in g/dm3 = concentration in g/dm3 ? Mr concentration = 0.1 ? 60 = 6 g/dm3 Answer 6 g/dm3
(MS) (HT Only) calculate the chemical quantities in titrations involving concentrations in mol/dm3 and in g/dm3.
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25 cm3 of dilute hydrochloric acid is neutralised by 20 cm3 of 0.5 mol/dm3 sodium hydroxide. What is the concentration of the hydrochloric acid?
Step 1: Convert volumes to dm3 25 cm3 of HCl = 25 /1000 = 0.025 dm3 20 cm3 of NaOH = 20 / 1000 = 0.020 dm3 Step 2: Determine the number of moles of sodium hydroxide moles of NaOH = concentration ? volume moles of NaOH = 0.5 x 0.020 = 0.010 mol Step 3: Work out the number of moles of acid using the balanced equation HCl(aq) NaOH(aq) ? NaCl(aq) H2O(l) In this reaction, one mole of HCl reacts with one mole of NaOH. This is a 1:1 ratio. Therefore, in our titration, 0.010 mol of NaOH must neutralise 0.010 mol of HCl. Step 4: Calculate the concentration of the acid concentration of HCl = number of moles / volume concentration of HCl = 0.010 / 0.025 = 0.4 mol/dm3 Answer The concentration of the HCl is 0.4 mol/dm3.
(MS) (HT only) determination of the concentration of one of the solutions in mol/dm3 and g/dm3 from the reacting volumes and the known concentration of the other solution.
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How can the volumes of acid and alkali solutions that react with each other be measured?
The volumes of acid and alkali solutions that react with each other can be measured by titration using a suitable indicator.
The volumes of acid and alkali solutions that react with each other can be measured by titration using a suitable indicator.
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What does conservation of energy mean?
Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. The amount of energy in the universe at the end of a chemical reaction is the same as before the reaction
Energy is conserved in chemical reactions. The amount of energy in the universe at the end of a chemical reaction is the same as before the reaction takes place.
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In what circumstance is energy transferred to the surroundings during a chemical reaction?
If a reaction transfers energy to the surroundings the product molecules must have less energy than the reactants, by the amount transferred.
If a reaction transfers energy to the surroundings the product molecules must have less energy than the reactants, by the amount transferred.
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What happens to the energy in an exothermic reaction?
An exothermic reaction is one that transfers energy to the surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings increases.
An exothermic reaction is one that transfers energy to the surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings increases.
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What are three examples of exothermic reactions?
Exothermic reactions include combustion, many oxidation reactions and neutralisation.
Exothermic reactions include combustion, many oxidation reactions and neutralisation.
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What is an example of an exothermic reaction in everyday life?
Everyday uses of exothermic reactions include self-heating cans and hand warmers.
Everyday uses of exothermic reactions include self-heating cans and hand warmers.
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What happens to the energy in an endothermic reaction?
An endothermic reaction is one that takes in energy from the surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
An endothermic reaction is one that takes in energy from the surroundings so the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
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What are three examples of endothermic reactions?
Endothermic reactions include thermal decompositions and the reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate
Endothermic reactions include thermal decompositions and the reaction of citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate. Some sports injury packs are based on endothermic reactions.
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What is an example of an endothermic reaction in everyday life?
Everyday uses of endothermic reactions are some sports injury (ice) packs.
Some sports injury packs are based on endothermic reactions.
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When a chemical reaction occurs and the temperature of the surroundings has increased, is it an exothermic or endothermic reaction?
When a chemical reaction occurs and the temperature of the surroundings has increased the chemical reaction is exothermic.
Students should be able to distinguish between exothermic and endothermic reactions on the basis of the temperature change of the surroundings
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What are the advantages of using exothermic reactions for hand warmers?
The advantages of using exothermic reactions for hand warmers is that they keep your hands warm because they release thermal energy to the surroundings.
Students should be able to evaluate uses and applications of exothermic and endothermic reactions given appropriate information.
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What is the temperature change of the solution if the starting temperature was 20 degrees and the end temperature was -5 degrees. State if this is endothermic or exothermic.
The energy change would be (-)15 degrees. This is an endothermic reaction.
Limited to measurement of temperature change. Calculation of energy changes or ?H is not required.
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Why do some collisions between reactant particles not result in a product forming?
Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy. This doesn't always happen.
Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
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What does the term activation energy mean?
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
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What information can be shown in a reaction profile?
Reaction profiles can be used to show the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change of a reaction.
Reaction profiles can be used to show the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change of a reaction.
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What would the simple reaction profile for an exothermic reaction look like?
For an exothermic reaction the reaction profile would show the energy level for the reactants to be lower than the energy level for the products. A curved line is used to show the activation energy required for the reaction (this is higher than the products energy level)
Students should be able to draw simple reaction profiles (energy level diagrams) for exothermic and endothermic reactions showing the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change, with a curved line to show the energy as the reaction proceeds
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What would the simple reaction profile for an endothermic reaction look like?
For an endothermic reaction the reaction profile would show the energy level for the reactants to be higher than the energy level for the products. A curved line is used to show the activation energy required for the reaction (this is higher than the reactants energy level)
Students should be able to use reaction profiles to identify reactions as exothermic or endothermic
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What information does the activation energy provide?
The activation energy is the energy needed for a reaction to occur.
Students should be able to explain that the activation energy is the energy needed for a reaction to occur.
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What energy transfers occur during breaking bonds of reactants and forming new bonds of products?
During a chemical reaction energy must be supplied to break bonds in the reactants and energy is released when bonds in the products are formed.
During a chemical reaction energy must be supplied to break bonds in the reactants and energy is released when bonds in the products are formed.
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What information can bond energies provide?
Bond energies tell us the energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when bonds are formed.
The energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when bonds are formed can be calculated from bond energies.
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How is the overall energy change of a reaction calculated?
The overall energy change is calculated by working out the difference between the sum of the energy needed to break bonds in the reactants and the sum of the energy released when bonds in the products are formed is the overall energy change of the reaction.
The difference between the sum of the energy needed to break bonds in the reactants and the sum of the energy released when bonds in the products are formed is the overall energy change of the reaction.
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What happens in an exothermic reaction in terms of energy, bond making and bond breaking?
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
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What happens in an endothermic reaction in terms of energy, bond making and bond breaking?
In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.
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What is the energy transferred in the following chemical reaction: hydrogen bromide decomposing to form hydrogen and bromine? 2 ? (H?Br) ? H?H Br?Br The bond energies relevant to this reaction are shown below: H?Br 366 kJ/mol H?H 436 kJ/mol Br?Br 193kJ/mol
1.Energy in = 2 ? 366 = 732 kJ/mole 2.Energy out = 436 + 193 = 629 kJ/mole 3.Energy change = in ? out = 732 ? 629 = +103 kJ/mole The energy change is positive, showing that energy is taken in from the surroundings in an endothermic reaction.
Students should be able to calculate the energy transferred in chemical reactions using bond energies supplied.
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How can the amount of energy transferred during a chemical reaction be measured using a practical?
A calorimeter can be used to measure the energy change of a reaction. Equipment needed: polystyrene cup, lid, thermometer, measuring cylinder, spatula. Add 10mL of solution to the beaker and record the starting temperature. Add one spatula of the powder of the reactants. Record the change in temperature. Subtract the end temperature from the start temperature.
Required practical 4 - temperature change in reactions (AT skills 1,3,5,6)
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Why are chemical cells useful?
Cells contain chemicals which react to produce electricity.
Cells contain chemicals which react to produce electricity.
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What factors can affect the voltage produced by a chemical cell?
The voltage produced by a cell is dependent upon a number of factors including the type of electrode and electrolyte.
The voltage produced by a cell is dependent upon a number of factors including the type of electrode and electrolyte.
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How can a simple chemical cell be made?
A simple cell can be made by connecting two different metals in contact with an electrolyte.
A simple cell can be made by connecting two different metals in contact with an electrolyte.
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What is the structure of a battery like?
Batteries consist of two or more cells connected together in series to provide a greater voltage
Batteries consist of two or more cells connected together in series to provide a greater voltage.
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Why do re-chargeable cells and batteries stop working?
In non-rechargeable cells and batteries the chemical reactions stop when one of the reactants has been used up.
In non-rechargeable cells and batteries the chemical reactions stop when one of the reactants has been used up. Alkaline batteries are non-rechargeable.
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How can re-chargeable cells and batteries be re-charged?
Rechargeable cells and batteries can be recharged because the chemical reactions are reversed when an external electrical current is supplied.
Rechargeable cells and batteries can be recharged because the chemical reactions are reversed when an external electrical current is supplied.
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Which cell would be the best choice to use to power a machine? Cell A produces 0.01V of energy and cell B produces 0.20V of energy. Give a reason for your answer.
Cell B would be the better choice to power a machine as it produces more electricity.
Students should be able to interpret data for relative reactivity of different metals and evaluate the use of cells.
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What type of batteries are non-rechargeable?
Alkaline batteries are non-rechargable.
Students do not need to know details of cells and batteries other than those specified.
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How do fuel cells produce a potential difference?
Fuel cells are supplied by an external source of fuel (eg hydrogen) and oxygen or air. The fuel is oxidised electrochemically within the fuel cell to produce a potential difference.
Fuel cells are supplied by an external source of fuel (eg hydrogen) and oxygen or air. The fuel is oxidised electrochemically within the fuel cell to produce a potential difference.
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What sort of reaction occurs in a hydrogen fuel cell?
The overall reaction in a hydrogen fuel cell involves the oxidation of hydrogen to produce water.
The overall reaction in a hydrogen fuel cell involves the oxidation of hydrogen to produce water.
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What do hydrogen fuel cells offer alternatives to?
Hydrogen fuel cells offer a potential alternative to rechargeable cells and batteries.
Hydrogen fuel cells offer a potential alternative to rechargeable cells and batteries.
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What are the advantages and disadvantages of using hydrogen fuel cells compared with rechargeable cells and batteries?
Similarities: Both convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy using ?spontaneous? redox reactions / Both function in similar ways ? that is, there is a negative electrode where an oxidation half-reaction occurs and a positive electrode where a reduction half-reaction occurs / Both generate electrical energy using chemical energy (compounds in the cells undergo chemical reactions which send electrons into an external circuit) / Both generate a current through an external circuit, which is caused by the separation of the half-reactions part of a full redox reaction / Both are made up of an electrolyte, an anode, and a cathode. Differences: The hydrogen oxygen fuel cell is an energy conversion device while the rechargeable battery is an energy storage device / Fuel cells can only provide electrical energy when reactants (fuel) are constantly provided to the cell (open system) / Rechargeable batteries have chemical energy stored in its parts, in a closed system, and so can provide electricity until its stored chemical energy is used up, at which point the battery requires recharging to renew its chemical energy level. Fuel cells do not require charging, as long as reactants continue to be provided, whereas rechargeable batteries must be charged, which takes the battery out of operation for a period of time / Fuel cells can provide electrical energy for a much longer duration, whereas rechargeable batteries can only provide energy in an intermittent schedule / Electrodes in fuel cells are made of porous material, which allows for the free movement of hydrogen, oxygen, and water, while those in rechargeable batteries are made of solid metal compounds and lattices / Currently, fuel cells are much more expensive than rechargeable batteries, due to the high prices of its individual parts, such as the platinum catalysts / Currently, fuel cells are far larger than rechargeable batteries / Fuel cells are able to generate a large amount of electrical energy, much greater than that produced by rechargeable batteries.
Students should be able to evaluate the use of hydrogen fuel cells in comparison with rechargeable cells and batteries
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(HT only) What are the half equations for the electrode reactions in a hydrogen fuel cell?
(HT only) At the cathode (negative electrode): H2(g) – 2e– → 2H (aq) At the anode (positive electrode): 4H (aq) O2(g) 4e– → 2H2O(g)
Students should be able to write the half equations for the electrode reactions in the hydrogen fuel cell. (HT only)
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When is an ionic compound able to conduct electricity?
When an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move about within the liquid or solution. These liquids and solutions are able to conduct electricity and are called electrolytes.
When an ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the ions are free to move about within the liquid or solution. These liquids and solutions are able to conduct electricity and are called electrolytes.
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(HT) What is the balanced half equation for H ? e??? H2
T(HT)he balanced half equation is: 2H ? 2e??? H2
(HT only) Write balanced half equations and ionic equations where appropriate.
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What happens at each of the electrodes in electrolysis when an electric current is passed through the electroytes?
Passing an electric current through electrolytes causes the ions to move to the electrodes. Positively charged ions move to the negative electrode (the cathode), and negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode (the anode). Ions are discharged at the electrodes producing elements. This process is called electrolysis.
Passing an electric current through electrolytes causes the ions to move to the electrodes. Positively charged ions move to the negative electrode (the cathode), and negatively charged ions move to the positive electrode (the anode). Ions are discharged at the electrodes producing elements. This process is called electrolysis.
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(HT) What happens at the anode and cathode electrodes in the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride? (use half equations to help explain)
(HT) At the cathode sodium is formed: 2Na 2e- --> 2Na At the anode chlorine gas is formed: 2Cl- -->Cl2 2e-
(HT only) Throughout Section 4.4.3 Higher Tier students should be able to write half equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes during electrolysis, and may be required to complete and balance supplied half equations. (MS)
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Which electrode as the metals and non metals products found during electrolysis?
During electrolysis the metal product is found at the cathode as this cathode is negatively charged. The non metal product is found at the anode, this this electrode is positively charged.
When a simple ionic compound (eg lead bromide) is electrolysed in the molten state using inert electrodes, the metal (lead) is produced at the cathode and the non-metal (bromine) is produced at the anode.
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What would the products be for the electrolysis of the following ionic compounds: 1. NaCl 2. PbBr2 3. NaOH 4. Al2O3
The products of electrolysis would be: 1. H2 (g) Cl2 (g) NaOH (aq) 2. Pb (s) Br2 (g) 3. H2 (g) O2 (g) Na (aq) 4. Al (s) O2 (g)
Students should be able to predict the products of the electrolysis of binary ionic compounds in the molten state.
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(HT) What would the half equations be for the electrolysis of NaCl?
(HT) anode: 2Cl– → Cl2 2e- (oxidation) cathode: 2H 2e– → H2 (reduction). NaOH solution is also produced.
(HT only) students should be able to write half equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes during electrolysis, and may be required to complete and balance supplied half equations for this process . (MS)
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What happens at the cathode during electrolysis? Is this an oxidation or reduction reaction?
During electrolysis, at the cathode (negative electrode), positively charged ions gain electrons and so the reactions are reductions.
During electrolysis, at the cathode (negative electrode), positively charged ions gain electrons and so the reactions are reductions.
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What happens at the anode during electrolysis? Is this an oxidation or reduction reaction?
At the anode (positive electrode), negatively charged ions lose electrons and so the reactions are oxidation reactions.
At the anode (positive electrode), negatively charged ions lose electrons and so the reactions are oxidation reactions.
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What would the half equations be during the electrolysis of PbBr2?
anode: 2Br– → Br2 2e- (oxidation) cathode: Pb2 2e– → Pb (reduction).
Reactions at electrodes can be represented by half equations, for example: 2H 2e- ? H2 and 4OH- ? O2 2H2O 4e- or 4OH- 4e- ? O 2H2O
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When is electrolysis used to extract metals from their ores?
Metals can be extracted from molten compounds using electrolysis. Electrolysis is used if the metal is too reactive to be extracted by reduction with carbon or if the metal reacts with carbon.
Metals can be extracted from molten compounds using electrolysis. Electrolysis is used if the metal is too reactive to be extracted by reduction with carbon or if the metal reacts with carbon.
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What is the main drawback of using electrolysis to extract metals?
The main drawback of using electrolysis to extract metals is that a large amount of energy is used to melt the compounds and to produce the electrical current.
Large amounts of energy are used in the extraction process to melt the compounds and to produce the electrical current.
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How is aluminium extracted from its metal ore (aluminium oxide)?
Aluminium is manufactured by the electrolysis of a molten mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite using carbon as the positive electrode (anode).
Aluminium is manufactured by the electrolysis of a molten mixture of aluminium oxide and cryolite using carbon as the positive electrode (anode).
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Why is a mixture used as the electrolyte in electrolysis?
A mixture is used as the electrolyte in electrolysis as the atoms are not chemically bonded they can be separated.
Students should be able to explain why a mixture is used as the electrolyte
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Why does the positive electrode (the anode) need to be replaced regularly?
Oxygen forms at the positive electrodes (anodes). This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive electrodes, forming carbon dioxide, and they gradually burn away.
Students should be able to explain why the positive electrode must be continually replaced.
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(HT)What are the missing reactants and products of the half equation shown below: Mg2 ___--> _____
(HT) Mg2 2e- --> Mg
(HT only) students should be able to write half equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes during electrolysis, and may be required to complete and balance supplied half equations for this process . (MS)
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Why is hydrogen produced instead of sodium in the electrolysis of NaCl solution?
The ions discharged when an aqueous solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes depend on the relative reactivity of the elements involved. Sodium is more reactive than hydrogen so forms NaOH in solution. Hydrogen gas is discharged at the electrode.
The ions discharged when an aqueous solution is electrolysed using inert electrodes depend on the relative reactivity of the elements involved.
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When is hydrogen produced at the negative electrode in electrolysis?
At the negative electrode (cathode), hydrogen is produced if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen.
At the negative electrode (cathode), hydrogen is produced if the metal is more reactive than hydrogen.
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When is oxygen not produced at the positive electrode?
At the positive electrode (anode), oxygen is produced unless the solution contains halide ions when the halogen is produced.
At the positive electrode (anode), oxygen is produced unless the solution contains halide ions when the halogen is produced.
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Why are hydrogen and oxygen often discharged in the electrolysis of aqueous ionic solutions?
Oxygen and hydrogen gas are discharged because in the aqueous solution water molecules break down producing hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that are discharged.
This happens because in the aqueous solution water molecules break down producing hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions that are discharged.
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What are the three products made in the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride?
The three products of the electrolysis of NaCl would be NaOH, Cl2 and H2.
Students should be able to predict the products of the electrolysis of aqueous solutions containing a single ionic compound.
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(HT)
(HT)
(HT only) students should be able to write half equations for the reactions occurring at the electrodes during electrolysis, and may be required to complete and balance supplied half equations for this process . (MS)
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How can you separate a solution of copper II sulfate to extract low grade copper ores? (include equipment)
Electrolysis can be used to extract low grade copper ores. Equipment needed: DC power supply, wires, graphite electrodes, beaker, copper sulfate solution. Connect the graphite electrodes to the power supply, immerse into the solution and switch on. Wait. copper ions will be collected at cathode and oxygen gas will be collected at the anode.
Required practical 3 - electrolysis (developing hypothesis) (AT skills 3,7,8)
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What is a system?
A system is an object or group of objects.
A system is an object or group of objects.
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What is the law of conservation of energy?
Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot be created or destroyed.
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Energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but cannot be created or destroyed.
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When a system changes, what happens to the way energy is stored?
The way energy is stored also changes. ie energy is transferred or transformed from one store to another.
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There are changes in the way energy is stored when a system changes.
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What is the net change in energy in a closed system? Give an example.
In a closed system there is no net change in energy. For example the energy transfers within a house are in a closed system.
Students should be able to describe with examples where there are energy transfers in a closed system, that there is no net change to the total energy.
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What energy changes are involved when an object is projected upwards?
When an object is projected upwards gravitational potential energy will increase, thermal energy will increase due to friction, which will cause the kinetic energy to decrease.
Students should be able to describe all the changes involved in the way energy is stored when a system changes, for common situations. For example: an object projected upwards
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What is the equation for elastic potential energy?
The equation for elastic potential energy is elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension^2
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be calculated using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension 2
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What equation links g.p.e., height, mass and gravitational field strength?
Gravitational potential energy = height x mass x gravitational field strength
Students should be able to calculate the amount of energy associated with a moving object, a stretched spring and an object raised above ground level.
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What equation is used to calculate kinetic energy of a moving object?
The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the equation: kinetic energy = 0.5 x mass x speed^2
The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the equation: kinetic energy = 0.5 ? mass ? speed2
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What is the equation for gravitational potential energy gained by an object raised above ground level?
The equation for gravitation potential energy gained by an object above ground level is G.P.E = mass x gravitational field strength x height
The amount of gravitational potential energy gained by an object raised above ground level can be calculated using the equation: g.p.e. = mass x gravitational field strength x height
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In all system changes, what happens to energy?
In all system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is often described as being 'wasted'.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, how in all system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is often described as being "wasted".
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What is the equation used to calculate energy efficiency?
The energy efficiency for any energy transfer can be calculated using the equation: efficiency = useful output energy transfer / total input energy transfer
The energy efficiency for any energy transfer can be calculated using the equation: efficiency = useful output energy transfer / total input energy transfer
0
What two ways can be used to reduce unwanted energy transfers?
The ways you can reduce unwanted energy transfers is by using lubrication or the use of thermal insulation.
Students should be able to explain ways of reducing unwanted energy transfers, for example through lubrication and the use of thermal insulation.
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(HT) How is the efficiency of an intended energy transfer increased?
(HT) The efficiency of an intended energy transfer is increased by increasing the amount of energy transferred usefully and decreasing the amount of wasted energy.
(HT only) Students should be able to describe ways to increase the efficiency of an intended energy transfer.
0
What equation is used to calculate change in thermal energy?
The amount of energy stored in or released from a system as its temperature changes can be calculated using the equation: change in thermal energy = mass x specific heat capacity x temperature change
The amount of energy stored in or released from a system as its temperature changes can be calculated using the equation: change in thermal energy = mass ? specific heat capacity ? temperature change
0
How much energy is needed to increase the temperature of 500 g of lead from 20oC to 45oC? The specific heat capacity of lead is 128 J/kg oC.
mass of lead = 500 x 1000 = 0.5 kg temperature change = 45 x 20 = 25oC energy needed = 0.5 x 128 x 25 = 1600 J (1.6 kJ)
Use calculations to show on a common scale how the overall energy in a system is redistributed when the system is changed.
0
What is meant by the term 'specific heat capacity'?
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius.
The specific heat capacity of a substance is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of the substance by one degree Celsius.
0
What is meant by the term 'power'?
Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done.
Power is defined as the rate at which energy is transferred or the rate at which work is done.
0
How is the rate of a cooling building affected by the thickness and the thermal conductivity of it's walls?
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material, the higher the rate of energy transfer by conduction across the material. The higher the thickness of the walls, the slower the cooling effect of a building.
Students should be able to describe how the rate of cooling of a building is affected by the thickness and thermal conductivity of its walls.
0
What definition is illustrated in the following example: comparing two electric motors that both lift the same weight through the same height but one does it faster than the other?
The definition illustrated by the following example is power: comparing two electric motors that both lift the same weight through the same height but one does it faster than the other.
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the definition of power eg comparing two electric motors that both lift the same weight through the same height but one does it faster than the other.
0
What affect does a higher thermal conductivity have?on the rate of energy transfer?
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material the higher the rate of energy transfer by conduction across the material
The higher the thermal conductivity of a material the higher the rate of energy transfer by conduction across the material.
0
What are the main energy resources available for use on Earth?
The main energy resources available for use on Earth include: fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), nuclear fuel, biofuel, wind, hydro-electricity, geothermal, the tides, the Sun and water waves.
The main energy resources available for use on Earth include: fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas), nuclear fuel, biofuel, wind, hydro-electricity, geothermal, the tides, the Sun and water waves.
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How is the main energy resource of fossil fuels used on Earth, compared with solar?
The main energy resource of fossil fuels is used on Earth for transport, electricity generation and heating as it can be burned. The main energy resources of solar is used on Earth for electricity generation and heating as it uses the infrared radiation from the Sun.
Students should be able to compare ways that different energy resources are used, the uses to include transport, electricity generation and heating
0
Why are fossil and nuclear fuels more reliable than wind for generating electricity?
Fossil fuels and nuclear fuel are more reliable than wind for electricity generation because wind turbines rely on the strength of the wind whereas fossil and nuclear fuels can provide continuous output for as long as they last.
Students should be able to understand why some energy resources are more reliable than others
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What are the environmental issues that arise from the use of different energy resources?
The environmental issues that arise from the use of tidal energy are that it can have a negative impact on wildlife and it may stop the flow of sewage out to the sea. Wave power can also have an effect on wildlife. Hydroelectric dams can cause flooding and biomass gives off atmospheric pollutants. Wood gives off atmospheric pollutants and can destroy habitats. Fossil fuel burning contributes to global warming.
Students should be able to consider the environmental issues that may arise from the use of different energy resources
0
What is a renewable energy resource?
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be) replenished as it is used.
A renewable energy resource is one that is being (or can be) replenished as it is used.
0
Why has there been an increase in use of fossil fuels since the early 1900s and how does this compare with solar energy?
There has been an increase in use of fossil fuels since the early 1900s because of the industrial revolution when fossil fuels were used heavily in industry. This use has continued until the present day and is expected to continue to rise until renewable resources yield enough energy to replace non-renewable resources such as solar energy. Solar energy experienced a sharp increase in use in the last decade due to improving technology and awareness of climate change.
Students should be able to explain patterns and trends in the use of energy resources.
0
Which of the following energy resources are renewable and which are non-renewable: fossil fuels, wind, biofuel, solar, nuclear fuel, water waves?
The following examples of energy resources are renewable: wind, biofuel, solar and water waves. The following examples of energy resources are non-renewable: fossil fuels wand nuclear fuel.
Students should be able to distinguish between energy resources that are renewable and energy resources that are non-renewable
0
What are the main uses of energy resources on Earth?
The uses of energy resources include: transport, electricity generation and heating.
The uses of energy resources include: transport, electricity generation and heating. Descriptions of how energy resources are used to generate electricity are not required.
0
What are the energy resources available on earth?
The energy resources available on earth are: coal, natural gas, oil, nuclear fuel, solar energy, wind power, wave and tidal power, geothermal, biomass and hydropower.
Students should be able to describe the main energy sources available
0
What is the environmental impact of using fossil fuels compared with solar?
The environmental impact of using fossil fuels is when they are burned they release: - carbon dioxide (global warming) - sulfur dioxide (acid rain) - nitrogen oxides (acid rain) - particulates (global dimming) Solar energy only releases these gases when solar cells and solar panels are being manufactured. Other than this they are renewable and release no greenhouse gases.
Students should be able to describe the environmental impact arising from the use of different energy resources
0
How would you draw a series circuit with the following components; a bulb, voltmeter, battery and variable resistor?
Battery symbol connected with a straight line to a bulb which has a votmeter in parallel across this component, a straight line to the variable resisior and a final straight line back to the battery.
Circuit diagrams use standard symbols (draw and intrepret)
0
What provides the potential difference for an electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit?
A cell or Battery
For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must include a source of potential difference.
0
What is the definition of electric current?
Electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
Electric current is a flow of electrical charge.
0
What is the size of an electrical current determined by?
The size of the electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
The size of the electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
0
How could you draw a circuit diagram to include the following components; bulb, cell, ammeter and an LDR?
A circuit diagram to include a battery/cell all components (bulb, ammeter and LDR) to be connected with straight lines ensureing these lines do not go through the components.
Students should be able to draw an appropriate circuit diagram using correct circuit symbols.
0
How are flow of charge, current and time linked by an equation?
charge flow, current and time are linked by the equation: charge flow = current ? time
Charge flow, current and time are linked by the equation: charge flow = current ? time
0
In a single closed loop what would the value of current be?
The current would have the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
0
How are current, potential difference and resistance linked by an equation?
current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using the equation: potential difference = current ? resistance V= = I R
Current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using the equation: potential difference = current ? resistance V = I R
0
What does the current through a component depend on?
The current (I) through a component depends on both the resistance ? of the component and the potential difference (V) across the component.
The current (I) through a component depends on both the resistance (R) of the component and the potential difference (V) across the component.
0
What is the difference in function between a resistor and a variable resistor?
Resistors have a constant value of R, whereas a variable resistor can change the value of R as the current changes.
Students should be able to explain that, for some resistors, the value of R remains constant but that in others it can change as the current changes.
0
What are the factors affecting resistance in a wire?
The length of a wire, material and temperature and the thickness of a wire will affect the resistance.
Required practical 3 - factors affecting resistance
0
How would a high resistance of a component affect the current and potential difference across the component?
The greater the resistance of the component the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across the component.
The greater the resistance of the component the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across the component.
0
How could you use a graph to identify if a circuit was linear or non-linear and relate the curves to their function and properties?
Draw a graph to identify if the line is straight or curved (linear or not) then relate this to what the elements function is Diode - current flowing only in one direction (linear then plateaus) resistor (constant temperature) restricts the flow of current, filament lamp curving graph showing that current and potential difference are not directily proportional.
Students should be able to use graphs to explore whether circuit elements are linear or non-linear and relate the curves produced to their function and properties.
0
What happens to the resistance of a filament lamp as the temperature increases?
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament increases.
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament increases. (Required practical activity 4)
0
A diode will have a very high resistance in which direction?
A diode has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.
The diode has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.
0
How does the current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) behave in relation to the current?
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains constant as the current changes.
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains constant as the current changes. (Required practical activity 4)
0
How could you draw a circuit to measure the resistance of a component by measuring the current through, and potential difference across, the component? (include the equation)
A circuit which has a battery/cell with straight lines drawn between components, a component (bulb) with an ammeter in series and a voltmeter parallel to the component (bulb) ensuring all lines do not go throug the components. Using V = I R calculate the resistance by dividing potential difference by the current.
Students should be able to explain the design and use of a circuit to measure the resistance of a component by measuring the current through, and potential difference across, the component
0
How does the resistance of a diode behave in relation to the current of the component?
The resistance of a diode changes with the current through the component in one direction and not allow current to flow in the other direction.
The resistance of components such as lamps, diodes, thermistors and LDRs is not constant; it changes with the current through the component. (Required practical activity 4)
0
How does the current through a diode behave?
The current through a diode flows in one direction only.
The current through a diode flows in one direction only.
0
How are thermistors used for? Give an example.
Thermistors are used in circuits to detect temperature changes, an example is a thermostat.
The applications of thermistors in circuits eg a thermostat is required.
0
What happens to the resistance of an LDR as light intensity increases?
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases.
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases. (Investigation)
0
How are LDRs used in circuits? Oive an example.
LDRs are used in circuits to detect light levels, an example is a security light.
The application of LDRs in circuits eg switching lights on when it gets dark is required.
0
What happens to the resistance of a thermistor as the temperature increases?
The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases.
The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases. (Investigation)
0
Why would the resistance of a semiconductor decrease?
The resistance of a semicondutor will decrease as the energy increases due to more charge carriers become freed.
[The resistance of a semicondutor decreases as energy increases as more charge carriers become freed]
0
When is an electric field of a charged object weakest?
The further away from the charged object, the weaker the field.
The further away from the charged object, the weaker the field
0
When do certain insulating materials become charged?
When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they become electrically charged.
When certain insulating materials are rubbed against each other they become electrically charged.
0
What happens to a second charged object placed in the electric field of the first charged object?
A second charged object placed in the field experiences a force.
A second charged object placed in the field experiences a force.
0
How do certain insulting materials become charged in terms of electrons?
Negatively charged electrons are rubbed off one material and on to the other.
Negatively charged electrons are rubbed off one material and on to the other.
0
What happens when two objects of the same type of charge are close together?
Two objects that carry the same type of charge repel.
Two objects that carry the same type of charge repel.
0
When is an electric field of a charged object strongest?
The electric field is strongest close to the charged object.
The electric field is strongest close to the charged object.
0
What is the relationship between force and distance between two charged objects?
The force gets stronger as the distance between the objects decreases.
The force gets stronger as the distance between the objects decreases.
0
What happens when two objects of opposite type of charge are close together?
Two objects that carry different types of charge attract.
Two objects that carry different types of charge attract.
0
How would you draw the electric field pattern for an isolated charged sphere?
radiating lines with arrowed lines pointing from positive to negative.
Students should be able to draw the electric field pattern for an isolated charged sphere
0
What is the charge of a material that loses the electrons?
The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The material that loses electrons is left with an equal positive charge.
The material that gains electrons becomes negatively charged. The material that loses electrons is left with an equal positive charge.
0
What type of force can the attraction and replulsion between two charged objects be classified as?
Attraction and repulsion between two charged objects are examples of non-contact force.
Attraction and repulsion between two charged objects are examples of non-contact force.
0
What is an electric field?
In an electric field a charged particle, or charged object, experiences a force. If the forces acting on any object are unbalanced, it will cause the object to accelerate.
Students should be able to explain the concept of an electric field
0
How is static electricity and/or a spark produced?
A method to create static electicity and/or a spark is by rubbing two surfaces against one another.
Students should be able to describe the production of static electricity, and sparking, by rubbing surfaces
0
What happens to the electric field of charged objects?
they are distorted resulting in an electrostactic force without the objects coming into contact with one another.
Students should be able to explain how the concept of an electric field helps to explain the non- contact force between charged objects as well as other electrostatic phenomena such as sparking.
0
How does a charged object exert forces of attraction and repulsion when not in contact with another object?
electrostatic forces will repel if the charges are like and attract if the charges are opposite. The evidence for this is when a rod is rubbed with a cloth the transfer of electrons from one object to another
Students should be able to describe evidence that charged objects exert forces of attraction or repulsion on one another when not in contact
0
How can the phenomena of static electricity be explained?
The transfer of electrons between objects can explain the phenomena of static electricity.
Students should be able to explain how the transfer of electrons between objects can explain the phenomena of static electricity.
0
Name the two different types of circuit that can be used to join electrical components together?
There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
0
What do we use dc series circuits for?
dc series circuits are used for most electrical circuits as they need a continuous positive suppy of electricity, wecan measure the current, potential difference and resistance in a dc circuit, if a component in a dc circuit fails this acts like a switch to turn off the circuit.
Students should be able to explain the design and use of dc series circuits for measurement and testing purposes
0
What is created in the area around a charged object?
A charged object creates an electric field around itself.
A charged object creates an electric field around itself.
0
Describe how: a) Current b) Potential difference c) Total resistance Varies between components connected in series.
For components connected in series: a) there is the same current through each component b) the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components c) The total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of each component. Rtotal = R1 R2
For components connected in series: ? there is the same current through each component ? the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components ? the total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of each component. Rtotal = R1 R2
0
What is the current if the potential difference is 12V and the resistance is 4Ohms?
I = V/R so I = 12V /4ohms = 3A
Students should be able to calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in dc series circuits
0
Describe how: a) current b) potential difference c) total resistance varies between components connected in parallel circuits?
For components connected in parallel: a) the potential difference across each component is the same b) the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate components c) the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the smallest individual resistor.
For components connected in parallel: ? the potential difference across each component is the same ? the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate components ? the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the smallest individual resistor.
0
What happens when two electically charged objects are brought close together?
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
0
In what two ways can Ohms law be applied to a circuit?
Either to a cirucit as a whole using equivalent resistence or to an individual component.
Students should be able to solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series using the concept of equivalent resistance.
0
Why does adding resistors in series increase the total resistance, whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance?
Adding resistors in parallel to a circuit results in the equivalent resistance of the circuit decreasing and the total current of the circuit increasing. Adding more resistors in parallel is equivalent to providing more branches through which charge can flow.
Students should be able to explain qualitatively why adding resistors in series increases the total resistance whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance Students are not required to calculate the total resistance of two resistors joined in parallel.
0
What are the two equations used to calculate power?
The two equations used to calculate power are: P = V I power = potential difference x current P = I2R power = current squared x resistance where: power, P, in watts, W potential difference, V, in volts, V current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) resistance, R, in ohms,
Students should be able to explain how the power transfer in any circuit device is related to the potential difference across it and the current through it, and to the energy changes over time: power = potential difference ? current P = V I power = current2 ? resistance P = I2 R where: power, P, in watts, W potential difference, V, in volts, V current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) resistance, R, in ohms, ?
0
What is the purpose of everyday electrical appliances?
The purpose of everyday electrical appliances are to bring about useful energy transfers.
Everyday electrical appliances are designed to bring about energy transfers.
0
What does the amount of energy an appliance transfers depend upon?
The amount of energy an appliance transfers depends on how long the appliance is switched on for and the power of the appliance.
The amount of energy an appliance transfers depends on how long the appliance is switched on for and the power of the appliance.
0
How do domestic appliances transfer energy from batteries or mains to the kinetic energy of electric motors or heating devices.
domestic apliances such as a washing machine will transfer electrical energy from the mains to kinetic energy, thermal energy and sound energy of the motor inside to turn the drum.
Students should be able to describe how different domestic appliances transfer energy from batteries or ac mains to the kinetic energy of electric motors or the energy of heating devices.
0
How is the power of a circuit device related to the potential difference across it and the current through it?
P = IV so Power is the sum of the current mulitplied by the potential difference ( potential energy x rate of flow)
Students should be able to explain how the power of a circuit device is related to the potential difference across it and the current through it
0
When is 'work done' in terms of appliances?
Work is done when charge flows in a circuit.
Work is done when charge flows in a circuit.
0
Which equation is use to calculate the amount of energy transferred by electrical work?
The amount of energy transferred by electrical work can be calculated using the equation: energy transferred = power x time
The amount of energy transferred by electrical work can be calculated using the equation: energy transferred = power ? time
0
In terms of charge flow and potential difference, how can energy transferred be calculated?
Energy transferred can be calculated by: energy transferred = charge flow x potential difference
Energy transferred can also be calculated by: energy transferred = charge flow ? potential difference
0
How is the power of a circuit device related to the energy transferred over a given time?
P = Et, So Power is calculated by multiplying the energy being transferred over the time taken.
Students should be able to explain how the power of a circuit device is related to the energy transferred over a given time.
0
What examples show the relationship between the power ratings for domestic electrical appliances and changes in stored energy when they are in use?
when an appliance such as a light bulb is switched on the electrical energy will transform into thermal energy which is (wasted energy) and light energy which is (useful energy)
Students should be able to describe, with examples, the relationship between the power ratings for domestic electrical appliances and the changes in stored energy when they are in use.
0
What type of supply is mains electricity?
Mains electricity is an ac supply.
Mains electricity is an ac supply.
0
What is the frequency of the domestic electricity supply in the United Kingdom?
In the United Kingdom the domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz.
In the United Kingdom the domestic electricity supply has a frequency of 50 Hz.
0
What is the potential difference of the domestic electricity supply in the United Kingdom?
In the United Kingdom the domestic electricity supply is about 230 V.
[In the United Kingdom the domestic electricity supply] is about 230 V.
0
What is the difference between direct and alternating potential difference?
In direct current (DC), the electric charge (current) only flows in one direction. Electric charge in alternating current (AC), on the other hand, changes direction periodically. The voltage in AC circuits also periodically reverses because the current changes direction.
Students should be able to explain the difference between direct and alternating potential difference.
0
How many core cables do most electrical appliances use to the mains?
Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using three-core cable.
Most electrical appliances are connected to the mains using three-core cable.
0
Why is the insulation covering of each wire in a plug colour coded? What colour is the a) Live wire b) Neutral wire c) Earth wire
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy identification: a) Live wire = Brown b) Neutral wire = Blue c) Earth wire = Green and yellow stripes.
The insulation covering each wire is colour coded for easy identification: live wire ? brown neutral wire ? blue earth wire ? green and yellow stripes.
0
What is carried by the live wire from the supply?
The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the supply.
The live wire carries the alternating potential difference from the supply.
0
What completes the circuit in a plug?
The neutral wire completes the circuit.
The neutral wire completes the circuit.
0
What is the potential difference between live wire and earth wire?
The potential difference between the live wire and earth (0 V) is about 230 V.
The potential difference between the live wire and earth (0 V) is about 230 V.
0
Which wire in a plug is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V)?
The neutral wire is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V).
The neutral wire is at, or close to, earth potential (0 V).
0
What is the potential difference of the earth wire in a plug, and when would it carry a current?
The earth wire is at 0 V, it only carries a current if there is a fault.
The earth wire is at 0 V, it only carries a current if there is a fault.
0
When might a live wire still be dangerous when considering a switch?
A live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in the mains circuit is open.
Students should be able to explain that a live wire may be dangerous even when a switch in the mains circuit is open
0
What are the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire and earth?
You would get an electric shock if the live wire inside an appliance, such as a cooker, came loose and touched the metal casing. However, the earth terminal is connected to the metal casing so that the current goes through the earth wire instead of causing an electric shock. A strong current surges through the earth wire because it has a very low resistance. This breaks the fuse and disconnects the appliance.
Students should be able to explain the dangers of providing any connection between the live wire and earth.
0
What is the purpose of the earth wire?
The earth wire is a safety wire to stop the appliance becoming live.
The earth wire is a safety wire to stop the appliance becoming live.
0
What is the National Grid?
The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers linking power stations to consumers.
The National Grid is a system of cables and transformers linking power stations to consumers.
0
What is used to transfer electrical power from power stations to consumers?
Electrical power is transferred from power stations to consumers using the National Grid.
Electrical power is transferred from power stations to consumers using the National Orid.
0
Why are step-up transformers used in the National Grid?
Step-up transformers are used to increase the potential difference from the power station to the transmission cables.
Step-up transformers are used to increase the potential difference from the power station to the transmission cables
0
Why are step-down transformers used in the National Grid?
Step-down transformers are used to decrease, to a much lower value, the potential difference for domestic use.
Step-down transformers are used to decrease, to a much lower value, the potential difference for domestic use.
0
Why is the National Grid system an efficient way to transfer energy?
The National Grid system is an efficient way to transfer energy because is transmits electricity at a low current to reduce energy lost as heat. This requires a high voltage. This is achieved by using a step-up transformer.
Students should be able to explain why the National Grid system is an efficient way to transfer energy.
0
What is the equation used to define the density of a material
The density of a material is defined by the equation: density = mass / volume
The density of a material is defined by the equation: density = mass / volume
0
What is meant by the term 'internal energy', in terms of particles?
Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
0
If the temperature of a system increases, what three different things does the increase in temperature depend on?
If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the type of material and the energy input to the system.
If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the type of material and the energy input to the system.
0
What is meant by the term 'internal energy', in terms of kinetic and potential energy?
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
0
What effect does heating change have on the energy stored within the system or state of matter?
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.
0
Draw a diagram pf particle arrangement for a solid; a liquid and a gas.
Solid: particles in a pattern and close together. Liquid: particles not in a pattern and close together. Gas: particles not in a pattern and far apart.
Students should be able to recognise/draw simple diagrams to model the difference between solids, liquids and gases.
0
What two things can the particle model be used to explain?
The particle model can be used to explain the different states of matter differences in density.
The particle model can be used to explain ? the different states of matter ? differences in density.
0
In terms of particles, explain why ther are differences in density between the different states of matter.
Gas are significantly less dense than liquids because the same number of es are spread out over a significantly greater particlvolume in a liquid. Liquids are less dense than liquids because the same number of particles are spread out of a slightly greater volume than in a solid.
Students should be able to explain the differences in density between the different states of matter in terms of the arrangement of atoms or molecules.
0
What is meant by the latent heat of a substance?
Latent heat is the amount of energy needed for a substance to change state.
If a change of state happens the energy needed for a substance to change state is called latent heat.
0
What happens to the temperature when a change of state occurs?
When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes the energy stored (internal energy) but not the temperature.
When a change of state occurs, the energy supplied changes the energy stored (internal energy) but not the temperature.
0
What happens to the mass of a substance as it changes state?
The mass of the substance is unchanged as it changes state due to the umber of particles remaining unchanged.
Students should be able to describe how, when substances change state (melt, freeze, boil, evaporate, condense or sublimate), mass is conserved.
0
What is the specific latent heat of a substance?
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to change the state of one kilogram of the substance with no change in temperature.
The specific latent heat of a substance is the amount of energy required to change the state of one kilogram of the substance with no change in temperature.
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How do changes of state differ from chemical changes?
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical changes because the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed.
Changes of state are physical changes which differ from chemical changes because the material recovers its original properties if the change is reversed.
0
What is the equation used to calculate the energy for a change of state? Include units in your response.
(MS) energy for a change of state = mass ? specific latent heat E = m L energy, E, in joules, J mass, m, in kilograms, kg specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg
(MS) energy for a change of state = mass ? specific latent heat E = m L energy, E, in joules, J mass, m, in kilograms, kg specific latent heat, L, in joules per kilogram, J/kg
0
What is meant by the term specific heat of fusion? Give an example to show what this means.
Specific latent heat of fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid for instance ice melting to water
Specific latent heat of fusion is the change of state from solid to liquid
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What is the difference between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat?
Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of a substance by 1 degree. specific latent heat is the amount of energy needed to change the state of a substance.
Students should be able to distinguish between specific heat capacity and specific latent heat.
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What is meant by the term specific heat of fusion? Give an example to show what this means.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation is the change of state from liquid to vapour. For example liquid water to steam.
Specific latent heat of vaporisation is the change of state from liquid to vapour
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How would the motion be described for molecules of a gas?
The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion.
The molecules of a gas are in constant random motion.
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What impact does increasing the temperature of a gas held at constant volume have on pressure?
Increasing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume, increases the pressure exerted by the gas.
Changing the temperature of a gas, held at constant volume, changes the pressure exerted by the gas.
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How does the temperature of a gas relate to the average kinetic energy of the molecules?
As the temperature increases so does the kinetic energy.
The temperature of the gas is related to the average kinetic energy of the molecules.
0
How does the motion of the molecules in a gas relate to both its temperature and its pressure?
The higher the temperature and motion the higher the motion.
Students should be able to explain how the motion of the molecules in a gas is related to both its temperature and its pressure
0
What is the relationship between the temperature of a gas and its pressure at constant volume?
The higher the temperature the higher the pressure.
Students should be able to explain qualitatively the relation between the temperature of a gas and its pressure at constant volume.
0
(Physics only) What states can be fluids?
(Physics only) A fluid can be either a liquid or a gas.
(Physics only) A fluid can be either a liquid or a gas.
0
(Physics only) Pressure in fluid causes a force in what direction to the surface?
(Physics only) The pressure in fluids causes a force normal (at right angles) to any surface.
(Physics only) The pressure in fluids causes a force normal (at right angles) to any surface.
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(Physics only) What equation can be used to calculate the pressure of a fluid at the surface?
(Physics only) The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the equation: pressure = force normal to a surface area of that surface p = F / A pressure, p, in pascals, Pa force, F, in newtons, N area, A, in metres squared, m2
(Physics only) The pressure at the surface of a fluid can be calculated using the equation: pressure = force normal to a surface area of that surface p = F / A pressure, p, in pascals, Pa force, F, in newtons, N area, A, in metres squared, m2
0
(Physics only) How can the pressure due to a column of liquid be calculated?
(Physics only) The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation: pressure = height of the column ? density of the liquid ? gravitational field strength [ p = h ? g ] pressure, p, in pascals, Pa height of the column, h, in metres, m density, ?, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3 gravitational field strength, g, in Newtons per kilogram, N/kg
(Physics only) The pressure due to a column of liquid can be calculated using the equation: pressure = height of the column ? density of the liquid ? gravitational field strength [ p = h ? g ] pressure, p, in pascals, Pa height of the column, h, in metres, m density, ?, in kilograms per metre cubed, kg/m3 gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given
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(Physics only) What two factors increase the pressure at a point in a liquid?
(Physics only) In a liquid, pressure at a point increases with the: Height of the column of liquid above that point: Density of the liquid.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain why, in a liquid, pressure at a point increases with the height of the column of liquid above that point and with the density of the liquid.
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(Physics only) How does pressure change as you get deeper in the sea?
(Physics only) Pressure increases as you get further from the surface of the water due to the force of the particles pushing down on the ones below.
(Physics only) Students should be able to calculate the differences in pressure at different depths in a liquid. (MS)
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(Physics only) How do differences in pressure create the force of upthrust?
(Physics only) A partially (or totally) submerged object experiences a greater pressure on the bottom surface than on the top surface. This creates a resultant force upwards. This force is called the upthrust.
(Physics only) A partially (or totally) submerged object experiences a greater pressure on the bottom surface than on the top surface. This creates a resultant force upwards. This force is called the upthrust.
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(Physics only) What factors influence whether an object floats or sinks?
(Physics only) An object will float or sink in a fluid depending on the relative densities of the object and Fluid. If the object is less dense it will float and if it is more dense then it will sink.
(Physics only) Students should be able to describe the factors which influence floating and sinking.
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(Physics only) What is the atmosphere?
(Physics only) The atmosphere is a thin layer (relative to the size of the Earth) of air round the Earth.
(Physics only) The atmosphere is a thin layer (relative to the size of the Earth) of air round the Earth.
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(Physics only) What happens to the density of the atmosphere as the altitude increases?
(Physics only) The atmosphere gets less dense with increasing altitude
(Physics only) The atmosphere gets less dense with increasing altitude
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(Physics only) What creates atmospheric pressure?
(Physics only) Air molecules colliding with a surface create atmospheric pressure.
(Physics only) Air molecules colliding with a surface create atmospheric pressure.
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(Physics only) What happens to the weight of air above a surface as the height of that surface is increased above ground level?
(Physics only) The number of air molecules (and so the weight of air) above a surface decreases as the height of the surface above ground level increases.
(Physics only) The number of air molecules (and so the weight of air) above a surface decreases as the height of the surface above ground level increases.
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(Physics only) Why does atmospheric pressure decrease with an increase in height?
(Physics only) As height increases there is always less air above a surface than there is at a lower height. So atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in height
(Physics only) So as height increases there is always less air above a surface than there is at a lower height. So atmospheric pressure decreases with an increase in height
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(Physics only) How would the particles in the air be arranged close to the Earth's surface then getting further up with altitude.
(Physics only) The air particles become more spread out/less dense as the altitude increases, decreasing the atmospheric pressure as there are less frequent collisions with the air particles.
(Physics only) Students should be able to describe a simple model of the Earth?s atmosphere and of atmospheric pressure
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(Physics only) Why does atmospheric pressure vary with height above the surface?
(Physics only) The air particles become more spread out/less dense as the altitude increases, decreasing the atmospheric pressure as there are less frequent collisions with the air particles.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain why atmospheric pressure varies with height above a surface
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(Physics only) What causes a gas to be compressed or expanded?
(Physics only) A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes.
(Physics only) A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes.
0
(Physics only) How does pressure affect gases?
(Physics only) Increasing pressure causes gases to compress and decreasing pressure causes them to expand.
(Physics only) A gas can be compressed or expanded by pressure changes.
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(Physics only) How does the pressure produce gas being compressed or expanded within a container?
(Physics only) The pressure produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas container (or any surface).
(Physics only) The pressure produces a net force at right angles to the wall of the gas container (or any surface).
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(Physics only) Using the particle model, how does increasing the volume in which as gas is contained lead to a decrease in pressure?
(Physics only) Increasing the volume in which a gas is contained, at constant temperature, can lead to a decrease in pressure through the particles being more spread out in the larger volume and colliding with the surface of the container less frequently.
(Physics only) Students should be able to use the particle model to explain how increasing the volume in which a gas is contained, at constant temperature, can lead to a decrease in pressure.
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(Physics only) What does Boyle's Law state?
(Physics only) For a fixed mass of gas held at a constant temperature: pressure ? volume = constant p V = constant pressure, p, in pascals, Pa volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
(MS)(Physics only) For a fixed mass of gas held at a constant temperature: pressure ? volume = constant p V = constant pressure, p, in pascals, Pa volume, V, in metres cubed, m3
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(Physics only) How could you calculate the change in pressure of a gas or the volume of a gas (of fixed mass and temperature)
(Physics only) pressure1 × volume1 = pressure2 × volume2
(Physics only) (MS) Students should be able to calculate the change in the pressure of a gas or the volume of a gas (a fixed mass held at constant temperature) when either the pressure or volume is increased or decreased.
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(Physics only) What is work?
(Physics only) Work is the transfer of energy by a force.
(Physics only) Work is the transfer of energy by a force.
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(Physics only) What impact does doing 'work' on a gas have on the internal energy of a gas and temperature?
(Physics only) Doing work on a gas increases the internal energy of the gas and can cause an increase in the temperature of the gas.
(Physics only) Doing work on a gas increases the internal energy of the gas and can cause an increase in the temperature of the gas.
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(Physics only) In a situation like a bicycle pump, explain how doing work on an enclosed gas can lead to an increase in temperature of the gas.
(Physics only) Doing work on an enclosed gas leads to an increase in the temperature of the gas by transferring energy to the gas particles increasing the kinetic energy and therefore the temperature.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how, in a given situation eg a bicycle pump, doing work on an enclosed gas leads to an increase in the temperature of the gas.
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(Physics only) What happens to some of the mass in nuclear fusion?
(Physics only) In nuclear fusion some of the mass may be converted into the energy of radiation.
(Physics only) In [Nuclear fusion] some of the mass may be converted into the energy of radiation.
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Why might the scientific model of the atom change over time?
Due to technological advances.
New experimental evidence may lead to a scientific model being changed or replaced.
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What where the atoms thought to be like before the discovery of the atom?
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny spheres that could not be divided.
Before the discovery of the electron, atoms were thought to be tiny spheres that could not be divided.
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What did the discovery of the electron lead to?
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the atom.
The discovery of the electron led to the plum pudding model of the atom.
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What did the plum pudding model suggest?
The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it
The plum pudding model suggested that the atom is a ball of positive charge with negative electrons embedded in it.
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What did the results from the alpha particle scattering experiment lead to?
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre (nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model
The results from the alpha particle scattering experiment led to the conclusion that the mass of an atom was concentrated at the centre (nucleus) and that the nucleus was charged. This nuclear model replaced the plum pudding model.
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How did Niel Bohr adapt the nuclear model?
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at specific distances.
Niels Bohr adapted the nuclear model by suggesting that electrons orbit the nucleus at specific distances. The theoretical calculations of Bohr agreed with experimental observations. Details of experimental work supporting the Bohr model are not required.
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What did later experiments on the atom lead to?
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge. The name proton was given to these particles.
Later experiments led to the idea that the positive charge of any nucleus could be subdivided into a whole number of smaller particles, each particle having the same amount of positive charge. The name proton was given to these particles.
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What did the experimental work of James Chadwick provide evidence of?
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific idea.
The experimental work of James Chadwick provided the evidence to show the existence of neutrons within the nucleus. This was about 20 years after the nucleus became an accepted scientific idea. Details of Chadwick?s experimental work are not required.
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Describe why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a change in the atomic model.
Evidence from the scattering experiment led to a change in the atomic model.
Students should be able to describe why the new evidence from the scattering experiment led to a change in the atomic model.
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What is the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and the nuclear model of the atom.
In the plum pudding model the atom was imagined to be a sphere of positive charge with negatively charged electrons dotted around inside it like plums in a pudding.
Students should be able to describe the difference between the plum pudding model of the atom and the nuclear model of the atom.
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What is the radius of an atom?
Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 x 10^-10 metres.
Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 x 10^-10 metres.
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What is the structure of an atom, with charges for sub-atomic particles?
The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
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How does the radius of an atom compare with the radius of the nucleus of an atom?
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10,000 of the radius of an atom.
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10,000 of the radius of an atom.
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Where is most of the mass of an atom concentrated?
Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
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How do energy levels differ in terms of distance from the nucleus?
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus (different energy levels).
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus (different energy levels).
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What might cause the electron arrangements to change (from a lower to higher energy level, for example)?
The electron arrangements may change with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower energy level)
The electron arrangements may change with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower energy level)
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How does the number of electrons relate to the number of protons in an atom?
In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
In an atom the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons in the nucleus.
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What is the overall electrical charge of an atom?
Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
Atoms have no overall electrical charge.
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What do all atoms of a particular element have in common? What do we call this number?
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. The number of protons in an atom of an element is called its atomic number.
All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons. The number of protons in an atom of an element is called its atomic number.
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What does the mass number of an atom refer to?
The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons.
The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass number.
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How can atoms be represented?
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example: (Mass number) (Atomic number) 23 11 Na
Atoms can be represented as shown in this example: (Mass number) (Atomic number) 23 11 Na
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What is an isotope?
An isotope is a version of an element that has the same number of protons to normal but a different number of neutrons.
Atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons; these atoms are called isotopes of that element.
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How can an atom become a positive ion?
Atoms turn into positive ions if they lose one or more outer electron(s).
Atoms turn into positive ions if they lose one or more outer electron(s).
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What is an isotope?
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the normal number of protons and electrons, but different numbers of neutrons. Isotopes have the same atomic number, but different mass numbers.
Students should be able to relate differences between isotopes to differences in conventional representations of their identities, charges and masses.
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What is meant by the term 'unstable' in terms of atomic nuclei?
A nucleus that needs to emit subparticles to become stable.
Some atomic nuclei are unstable.
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How can a nucleus become more stable in terms of radiation?
Emit alpha, beta or gamma radiation.
The nucleus gives out radiation as it changes to become more stable. This is a random process called radioactive decay.
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What is meant by the term 'activity' in terms of decay?
The amount of radioactivity the radioactive isotope contains.
Activity is the rate at which a source of unstable nuclei decays.
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What is radioactive activity measured in?
Activity is measured in becquerel (Bq)
Activity is measured in becquerel (Bq)
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What is the definition of 'count rate' and what piece of equipment can measure it?
A Geiger-Muller tube can be used to measure count rate.
Count-rate is the number of decays recorded each second by a detector (eg Geiger-Muller tube).
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What are the different types of nuclear radiation that can be emitted and what is each made up of?
The nuclear radiation emitted may be: - an alpha particle (α) - this consists of two neutrons and two protons, it is the same as a helium nucleus - a beta particle (
An alpha particle (α) is this consists of two neutrons and two protons, it is the same as a helium nucleus
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What is a beta particle (β)?
A beta particle (β) is a high speed electron ejected from the nucleus as a neutron turns into a proton
A beta particle (β) is a high speed electron ejected from the nucleus as a neutron turns into a proton
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What is a gamma ray (γ)?
A gamma ray (γ) is electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus
A gamma ray (γ) is electromagnetic radiation from the nucleus
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What is released during nuclear fission?
A neutron is emitted during nuclear radiation.
The nuclear radiation emitted may be also be a neutron (n).
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What will stop the alpha radiation?
Alpha is stopped by a few centimeters of air or a sheet of paper;
Alpha is stopped by a few centimeters of air or a sheet of paper.
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What will stop the Beta radiation?
Beta is stopped by a few millimeters of aluminium
Beta is stopped by a few millimeters of aluminium
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What will stop the Gamma radiation?
Gamma rays are stopped by a few centimeters of lead or a few meters of concrete.
Gamma rays are stopped by a few centimeters of lead or a few meters of concrete.
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Relative to alpha and beta, how ionising is gamma radiation?
Gamma rays are the least ioninsing.
Gamma rays are the least ioninsing, because they are not charged.
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Relative to beta and gamma, how ionising is alpha radiation?
Alpha particles are the most ioninsing.
Alpha particles are the most ioninsing as they have a charge of plus 2.
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What are the different uses of radiation?
Radiation can be used in some of the following ways: *Thickness of paper. * Detecting leaks in pipes. * Cancer treatment. * Detection of disease.
Students should be able to apply their knowledge to the uses of radiation and evaluate the best sources of radiation to use in a given situation.
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How can nuclear equations be used?
Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay.
Nuclear equations are used to represent radioactive decay. (diagram)
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What symbol represents an alpha particle?
An alpha particle is represent by the following symbol: α
In a nuclear equation an alpha particle may be represented by the symbol:The symbol of an alpha particle.
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What symbol represents a beta particle?
An beta particle is represented by the following symbol: β
The symbol of a beta particle.
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What does the emission of the different types of nuclear radiation cause?
The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a change in the mass and /or the charge of the nucleus.
The emission of the different types of nuclear radiation may cause a change in the mass and /or the charge of the nucleus.
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What does alpha decay cause?
Alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to decrease.
alpha decay causes both the mass and charge of the nucleus to decrease.
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What does Beta decay cause?
Beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change but does cause the charge of the nucleus to increase.
Beta decay does not cause the mass of the nucleus to change but does cause the charge of the nucleus to increase.
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How to balance alpha (α) and beta (β) decay equations?
During alpha decay- A new element is formed that is two places lower in the Periodic Table than the original element. For example, radon decays into polonium when it emits an alpha particle. In beta decay, a neutron changes into a proton plus an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus. The electron leaves the atom with high energy as a beta particle. The nucleus has one more proton and one less neutron when it emits a beta particle. This means that: The atomic mass number stays the same The atomic number increases by 1
Students should be able to use the names and symbols of common nuclei and particles to write balanced equations that show single alpha (α) and beta (β) decay. This is limited to balancing the atomic numbers and mass numbers. The identification of daughter elements from such decays is not required.
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What happens during the emission of a gamma ray?
The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the charge of the nucleus to change.
The emission of a gamma ray does not cause the mass or the charge of the nucleus to change.
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How radioactive decay happen?
Radioactive decay is a random process.
Radioactive decay is random.
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What is the meaning of the term 'half-life'?
Half life is the amount time taken for a radioacitve material to reduce it radioactive emissons by half.
The half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for the number of nuclei of the isotope in a sample to halve, or the time it takes for the count rate (or activity) from a sample containing the isotope to fall to half its initial level.
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How is the concept of half-life related to radioactive decay?
Radioactive activity decreasses by half at each half life.
Students should be able to explain the concept of half-life and how it is related to the random nature of radioactive decay
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How would the half-life of a radioactive isotope be determined from given information?
Use divisions of half to determine half lifes from given data.
Students should be able to determine the half-life of a radioactive isotope from given information.
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How would the net decline of radioactive emission after a given number of half-lives be expressed?
Should be expressed as a ratio.
(HT only) Students should be able to calculate the net decline, expressed as a ratio, in a radioactive emission after a given number of half-lives.
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What is meant by radioactive contamination?
Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of materials containing radioactive atoms on other materials.
Radioactive contamination is the unwanted presence of materials containing radioactive atoms on other materials.
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What is the hazard of contamination?
The hazard from contamination is due to the decay of the contaminating atoms. The type of radiation emitted affects the level of hazard.
The hazard from contamination is due to the decay of the contaminating atoms. The type of radiation emitted affects the level of hazard.
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What is Irradiation?
Irradiation is the process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation. The irradiated object does not become radioactive.
Irradiation is the process of exposing an object to nuclear radiation. The irradiated object does not become radioactive.
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What are the hazards associated with contamination and irradiation?
The radiation from the material can damage the cells of the person directly. This is damage by irradiation. Some of the radioactive material can be swallowed or breathed in. While inside the body, the radiation it emits can produce damage. This is damage by contamination.
Students should be able to compare the hazards associated with contamination and irradiation.
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What type of suitable precaution must be taken to protect against any hazard that the radioactive source used in the process of irradiation may present.
Wearing protective clothing keeping as far away as is practicable - for example, by using tongs keeping your exposure time as short as possible, and keeping radioactive materials in lead-lined containers, labelled with the appropriate hazard symbol.
Suitable precautions must be taken to protect against any hazard that the radioactive source used in the process of irradiation may present.
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When is radiation around?
Background radiation is around us all of the time.
Background radiation is around us all of the time.
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Where does Background radiation comes from?
Natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays from space man-made sources such as the fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
Background radiation comes from: ? natural sources such as rocks and cosmic rays from space ? man-made sources such as the fallout from nuclear weapons testing and nuclear accidents.
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How could the level of background radiation be affected?
The level of background radiation and radiation dose may be affected by occupation and/or location.
The level of background radiation and radiation dose may be affected by occupation and/or location.
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How is radiation dose measured?
Radiation dose is measured in sieverts (Sv)
Radiation dose is measured in sieverts (Sv)
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What does 1000 millisieverts equal to?
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)
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What is the unit for a radiation dose?
"sievert" (Sv)
Students will not need to recall the unit of radiation dose.
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How can nuclear radiation be used in medicine?
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the: exploration of internal organs control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the: ? exploration of internal organs ? control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
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How can nuclear radiation be used in medicine?
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the: exploration of internal organs control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the: ? exploration of internal organs ? control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
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How can nuclear radiation be used in medicine?
Nuclear radiations are used in medicine for the: exploration of internal organs control or destruction of unwanted tissue.
Students should be able to describe and evaluate the uses of nuclear radiations for exploration of internal organs, and for control or destruction of unwanted tissue
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What are the perceived risks of using nuclear radiation?
Can cause mutations in DNA and the uncontrolled division of cells. This can cause benign and malignant tumours.
Students should be able to evaluate the perceived risks of using nuclear radiations in relation to given data and consequences.
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What are the half-lifes of radioactive isotopes?
Radioactive isotopes have a very wide range of half-life values
Radioactive isotopes have a very wide range of half-life values
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Why does the hazard associated with radioactive material differ according to the half-life involved?
The longer the half life the higher the hazard as the longer the time needed for the radiation to reach normal levels.
Students should be able to explain why the hazards associated with radioactive material differ according to the half-life involved
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What is meant by the term 'nuclear fission'?
The process of splitting a nucleus is called nuclear fission.
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large and unstable nucleus (eg uranium or plutonium).
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When does Spontaneous fission occur?
Spontaneous fission is rare. Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus must first absorb a neutron.
Spontaneous fission is rare. Usually, for fission to occur the unstable nucleus must first absorb a neutron.
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What happens to a nucleus undergoing fission?
The nucleus undergoing fission splits into two smaller nuclei, roughly equal in size, and emits two or three neutrons plus gamma rays. Energy is released by the fission reaction.
The nucleus undergoing fission splits into two smaller nuclei, roughly equal in size, and emits two or three neutrons plus gamma rays. Energy is released by the fission reaction.
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What type of energy do all fission products have?
All of the fission products have kinetic energy.
All of the fission products have kinetic energy.
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What starts the chain reaction?
The neutrons may go on to start a chain reaction.
The neutrons may go on to start a chain reaction.
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How is a chain reaction controlled?
The chain reaction is controlled in a nuclear reactor to control the energy released.
The chain reaction is controlled in a nuclear reactor to control the energy released.
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How is the explosion of a nuclear weapon caused?
The explosion caused by a nuclear weapon is caused by an uncontrolled chain reaction.
The explosion caused by a nuclear weapon is caused by an uncontrolled chain reaction.
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What is nuclear fusion?
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
Nuclear fusion is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.
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Why is the nervous system important?
The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings and to coordinate their behaviour.
The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings and to coordinate their behaviour.
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How is the nervous system adapted to its function?
The responses formulated by the nervous system are very quick and therefore allow responses to be fast and protect the organism from danger.
Be able to explain how the structure of the nervous system is adapted to its functions.
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What do the control systems in the body include?
All control systems include:a) cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment), b) coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors, c) effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which restore optimum levels.
All control systems include:a) cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment), b) coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors, c) effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which restore optimum levels.
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How is this control made automatic?
It may involve chemical or nervous responses.
These automatic control systems may involve nervous responses or chemical responses.
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What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external changes.
Be able to explain that homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external changes.
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Why is homeostasis important?
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all cell functions.
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all cell functions.
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What things does homeostasis control?
In the human body, these include control of: a) blood glucose concentration. B) body temperature. C) water levels.
In the human body, these include control of: a) blood glucose concentration. B) body temperature. C) water levels.
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How is information transmitted in the nervous system?
Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as electrical impulses to the central nervous system (CNS).
Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as electrical impulses to the central nervous system (CNS).
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What is in the central nervous system?
The CNS is the brain and spinal cord.
The CNS is the brain and spinal cord.
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What is the role of the central nervous system?
The CNS coordinates the response of effectors which may be muscles contracting or glands secreting hormones.
The CNS coordinates the response of effectors which may be muscles contracting or glands secreting hormones.
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What are the stages of the reflex arc?
The stages of the reflex arc are stimulus, receptor, sensory, relay, motor, effector then response.
Stimulus --> Receptor --> Coordinator --> Effector --> Response
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How are the neurones adapted to their function?
Neurones axon allowing impulses to be transmitted long distances, they also have dendrites on the cell body which are branched to detect impulses from other nerves. They are insulated with a myelin (fatty) sheath so that impulses do not cross over and they have a synapse to propagate the impulses using chemical messengers.
Be able to explain how the various structures in a reflex arc including the sensory neurone, synapse, relay neurone and motor neurone relate to their function.
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Why are reflex actions so important?
They allow us to respond to our environment and keep ourselves out of danger.
Students should understand why reflex actions are important.
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How are reflex actions described?
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the conscious part of the brain.
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the conscious part of the brain.
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Required Practical 7 - Reaction Time (AT skills 1,3,4)
Required Practical - Reaction Time (AT skills 1,3,4)
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What is the endocrine system and what is its role?
The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
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What are the names of the glands labelled 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the following image? http://bit.ly/2Cy01Tj
Number 1 is the pituitary gland, number 2 the thyroid, number 6 are the adrenal glands and number 7 the pancreas. Number 8 are the ovaries and number 9 the testes.
Students should be able to identify the position of the following on a diagram of the human body: Pituitary gland, Pancreas, Thyroid, Adrenal Gland, Ovary and Testes.
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What is the role of the bloodstream in the endocrine system?
The blood carries the hormone to a target organ where it produces an effect.
The blood carries the hormone to a target organ, where it produces an effect.
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How does the endocrine system compare to the nervous system?
Compared to the nervous system the effects are slower but act for longer.
Compared to the nervous system the effects are slower, but act for longer.
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What is the pituitary gland described as and what is its role?
The pituitary gland in the brain is a "master gland" which secretes several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions.
The pituitary gland in the brain is a "master gland" which secretes several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions.
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What do the hormones released by the pituitary gland do?
The hormones released by the pituitary gland act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects.
These hormones in turn act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects.
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(HT) Where are thyroxine and adrenaline created in the body?
(HT) Thyroxine - thyroid gland. Adrenaline - adrenal gland.
Students should be able to explain the roles of thyroxine and adrenaline in the body (HT only)
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(HT) What is the role of adrenaline in the body?
(HT) Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for "flight or fight".
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for "flight or fight". (HT only)
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(HT) What is the role of thyroxine in the body?
(HT) Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic rate. It plays an important role in growth and development. (HT only)
Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic rate. It plays an important role in growth and development. (HT only)
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(HT) How are thyroxine levels controlled?
(HT) The thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback.
Thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback. Interpret and explain simple diagrams of negative feedback control. (HT only)
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What organ monitors and controls blood glucose concentration?
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas.
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas
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How does the pancreas control blood glucose levels?
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells.
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells.
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What do the liver and muscle cells do to excess glucose?
In the liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage.
In the liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage.
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How does insulin control blood glucose levels?
When insulin is released it causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen.
When insulin is released it causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen.
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What is type 1 diabetes and how is it treated?
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is normally treated with insulin injections.
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is normally treated with insulin injections.
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What is type 2 diabetes and how is it controlled?
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an exercise regime are common treatments.
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an exercise regime are common treatments.
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Which diabetes is obesity a risk factor for?
Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
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(HT) How does the body increase the blood glucose concentration?
(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood.
(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood.
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(HT) How does glucagon control blood glucose levels?
(HT only) Glucagon interacts with insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood glucose (sugar) levels in the body.
(HT only) Glucagon interacts with insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood glucose (sugar) levels in the body.
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How do osmotic changes in fluids affect red blood cells?
If a red blood cell is placed in water, water enters the cell by osmosis. Because the membrane is quite weak the cell will burst as the volume and therefore the pressure in the cell increases. Red blood cells shrink when placed in concentrated solutions of sugar as water moves out of them by osmosis.
Students should be able to explain the effect on cells of osmotic changes in body fluids
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(HT) How does ADH affect the permeability of the kidney tubules?
(HT) ADH increases the permeability of the kidney tubules (nephrons), causing them to reabsorb more water.
(HT only) Students should be able to describe the effect of ADH on the permeability of the kidney tubules.
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How does water from the lungs leave the body?
Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation.
Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation.
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(HT) What is the role of the hormone ADH?
(HT) ADH controls the level of water in the body by acting on the kidney tubules?
(HT only) The water level in the body is controlled by the hormone ADH which acts on the kidney tubules.
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What is lost from the skin through sweat?
Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat.
Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat.
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(HT) How is water concentration controlled by ADH and what is this process controlled by?
(HT) ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is too concentrated and it causes more water to be reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubules. This is controlled by negative feedback.
(HT only) ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is too concentrated and it causes more water to be reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubules. This is controlled by negative feedback.
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Can we control loss through the lungs and skin?
There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin.
There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin.
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How are people with kidney failure treated?
People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated by organ transplant or by using kidney dialysis. During dialysis ‘dirty’ blood (high in urea) is taken from a blood vessel in the arm, mixed with blood thinners to prevent clotting, and pumped into a dialysis machine. Inside the machine - separated by a partially permeable membrane the blood flows in the opposite direction to dialysis fluid, allowing exchange to occur between the two where a concentration gradient exists.
People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated by organ transplant or by using kidney dialysis. Students should know the basic principles of dialysis.
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What is lost in urine?
Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys in the urine.
Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys in the urine.
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What happens to body cells if they lose of gain too much water?
If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function efficiently.
If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function efficiently
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(HT) Where do excess amino acids come from and how do we safely get rid of them?
(HT) The digestion of proteins from the diet results in excess amino acids which need to be excreted safely. In the liver these amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia. Ammonia is toxic and so it is immediately converted to urea for safe excretion.
(HT only) The digestion of proteins from the diet results in excess amino acids which need to be excreted safely. In the liver these amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia. Ammonia is toxic and so it is immediately converted to urea for safe excretion.
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What is the function of the kidneys?
The function of the kidneys is to maintain water balance by reabsorbing water from the blooodstream into the cells until balance is restored.
Students should be able to describe the function of kidneys in maintaining the water balance of the body.
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How do the kidneys produce urine?
The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption of useful substances such as glucose, some ions and water.
The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption of useful substances such as glucose, some ions and water.
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What is the function of the brain and what is its structure?
The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions.
The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions.
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What are the functions of the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and medulla?
The cerebral cortex controls personality, memory and conscious though. The cerebellum controls balance and co-ordination of movement and the medulla controls the heart rate and breathing rate.
Students should be able to identify the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and medulla on a diagram of the brain, and describe their functions
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(HT only) Why is it so hard to treat damage to the brain?
(HT only) Unlike other cells brain cells cannot re-grow.Therefore when damage occurs the cells cannot be saved. This means that brain damage tends to be permanent.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain some of the difficulties of investigating brain function and treating brain damage and disease.
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(HT only) How did neuroscientists discover the functions of the different parts of the brain?
(HT only) Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques.
(HT only) Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques.
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(HT only) What characteristics of the brain make it difficult to treat and investigate brain disorders?
(HT only)The complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating brain disorders very difficult.
(HT only) The complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating brain disorders very difficult.
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How do the cilliary muscles and the suspensory ligaments allow the eye to focus on near or distant objects?
The cilliary muslces Adjust the shape of the lens to make it more or less curved, so as to increase or decrease the refraction of light and the suspensory ligaments Slacken or stretch as the ciliary muscles contract or relax, to adjust the thickness and curvature of the lens. This in turn allows differences in the refraction of light onto the retina and therefore allows the eye to focus.
Students should be able to relate the structures of the eye to their functions. This includes accommodation to focus on near or distant objects.
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How is the eye adapted to its function?
The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.
Another adaptation is to dim light - The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.
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How are the structures of the following related to their functions: - retina - optic nerve - sclera - cornea - iris - ciliary muscles - suspensory ligaments?
Retina - contains the photo receptors to allow us to see. Optic nerve - Transmits signals from the photo receptors to the CNS through being a nerve cell. Sclera - Relatively tough outer casing of the eye for protection. Cornea - Transparent layer to allow light in. IT is curved to refract light. Iris - made of muscle to alter the amount of light entering the eye. Ciliary muscles - made of muscular tissue which contract or relax to move the suspensory ligaments. Suspensory ligaments - attached to the ciliary muscles and lens to aid accommodation.
Students should be able to identify the following structures on a diagram of the eye and explain how their structure is related to their function: ? retina ? optic nerve ? sclera ? cornea ? iris ? ciliary muscles ? suspensory ligaments.
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What is accommodation?
Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects.
Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects.
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What processes must the eye go through in order to focus on a near object or on a distant object?
To focus on a near object the eye must do the following: 1. The ciliary muscles contract. 2. The suspensory ligaments loosen. 3. The lens is then thicker and refracts light rays strongly. To focus on a distant object: - The ciliary muscles relax. - The suspensory ligaments are pulled tight - The lens is then pulled thin and only slightly refracts light rays.
To focus on a near object: ???? the ciliary muscles contract ?? the suspensory ligaments loosen ???? the lens is then thicker and refracts light rays strongly. To focus on a distant object: ? the ciliary muscles relax ? the suspensory ligaments are pulled tight ? the lens is then pulled thin and only slightly refracts light rays.
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What are myopia and hyperopia and how do they affect the eye?
Myopia is short sightedness and hyperopia is long sightedness and this causes rays of light to not focus on the retina.
Two common defects of the eyes are myopia (short sightedness) and hyperopia (long sightedness) in which rays of light do not focus on the retina. ???
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What are myopia and hyperopia usually treated with and how do they help?
Generally these defects are treated with spectacle lenses which refract the light rays so that they do focus on the retina.
Generally these defects are treated with spectacle lenses which refract the light rays so that they do focus on the retina.
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What new technologies are there in place to treat eye defects?
New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser surgery to change the shape of the cornea and a replacement lens in the eye.
New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser surgery to change the shape of the cornea and a replacement lens in the eye.
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What controls body temperature and how does it do it?
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood.
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood.
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What is the role of the skin in monitoring body temperature?
The skin contains receptors which detect changes in temperature and send impulses to the brain.
The skin contains receptors which detect changes in temperature and send impulses to the brain.
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What happens to the body when the core body temperature is too low?
If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweat is produced from the sweat glands.
If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweat is produced from the sweat glands.
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How do vasodilation and sweating help cool down the body?
Vasodilation and sweating transfer thermal energy from the skin to the environment.
Both these mechanisms cause a transfer of energy from the skin to the environment.
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What happens to the body when its core temperature is too low?
If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction), sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver).
If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction), sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver).
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(HT only) How does vasoconstriction help increase the body temperature?
(HT only) Vasoconstriction causes blood flow to the skin to decrease and slow down therefore decreasing the amount of energy lost to the environment from the skin.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how these mechanisms lower or raise body temperature in a given context.
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What do reproductive hormones do to the body during puberty?
During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to develop.
During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to develop.
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What is the main female reproductive hormone and where is it produced?
Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in the ovary.
Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in the ovary.
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What is ovulation and how often does it occur?
At puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released approximately every 28 days. This is called ovulation.
At puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released approximately every 28 days. This is called ovulation
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Where is testosterone produced and what is its role?
Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by the testes and it stimulates sperm production.
Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by the testes and it stimulates sperm production.
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Is there just one hormone involved in the menstruation of women or are there several?
There are several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
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What is the role of follicle stimulating hormone?
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the ovary.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the ovary.
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What is the role of luteinising hormone?
Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg.
Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg.
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Which hormones are involved in maintaining the uterus lining?
Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus lining.
Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus lining
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(HT only) How do FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone interact in the menstrual cycle?
(HT only) FSH causes the ovaries to secrete oestrogen.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain the interactions of FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone, in the control of the menstrual cycle
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Which of the hormones shows the sharpest spike in a graph of hormone levels during the menstrual cycle?
LH shows a sharp spike to cause the release of an egg (ovulation) and then drops down low after it.
(HT only) Students should be able to extract and interpret data from graphs showing hormone levels during the menstrual cycle.
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Give an advantage and disadvantage of condoms, the pill and the implant.
Condoms - A - also protect against STIs - D - not quite as effective as some hormonal methods. Pill - A - Highly effective if used correctly - D - needs to be remembered to be taken. Implant - A - doesn't need to be remembered each day - D - Sometimes long-term protection is not suitable.
Students should be able to evaluate the different hormonal and non- hormonal methods of contraception.
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What are the two categories of contraception?
Hormonal and non-hormonal/barrier methods.
Fertility can be controlled by a variety of hormonal and non-hormonal methods of contraception.
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Name at least 7 forms of contraception and how they work.
These include: ? oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature ? injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs for a number of months or years ? barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which prevent the sperm reaching an egg ? intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo or release a hormone ? spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm ? abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct ? surgical methods of male and female sterilisation.
These include: ? oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature ? injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs for a number of months or years ? barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which prevent the sperm reaching an egg ? intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo or release a hormone ? spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm ? abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct ? surgical methods of male and female sterilisation. Explain everyday and technological applications of science; evaluate associated personal, social, economic and environmental implications; and make decisions based on the evaluation of evidence and arguments.
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(HT) Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?
(HT) FSH - promotes the maturation of more eggs. These multiple eggs can increase the chance of conceiving or be used in IVF. LH - to cause the release of those mature eggs.
(HT) Explain the use of hormones in modern reproductive technologies to treat infertility
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(HT) How has developments in microscope technology and techniques enabled IVF treatment to improve?
(HT) Microscopes can be used to monitor for fertilisation and development into embryos.
(HT) Explain how developments of microscopy techniques have enabled IVF treatments to develop.
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(HT) Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?
(HT) FSH - promotes the maturation of more eggs. These multiple eggs can increase the chance of conceiving or be used in IVF. LH - to cause the release of those mature eggs.
This includes giving FSH and LH in a ?fertility drug? to a woman. She may then become pregnant in the normal way. (HT only)
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(HT) What are some social and ethical issues associated with IVF treatment?
(HT) IVF costs the NHS money, increased number of babies being born, embryos that are not used may be destroyed. Some people consider embryos to be new lives and view their destruction as unethical. These could also be used for research.
Understand social and ethical issues associated with IVF treatments (HT only)
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(HT) What are some of the disadvantages of IVF?
(HT) Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a baby of her own: ? it is very emotionally and physically stressful ? the success rates are not high ? it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the mother
Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a baby of her own: ? it is very emotionally and physically stressful ? the success rates are not high ? it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the mother. (HT only)
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(HT) Describe the stages of IVF.
(HT) IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs. The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father in a dish in the laboratory. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos. At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells one or two embryos are inserted into the mother's uterus (womb)
Evaluate from the perspective of patients and doctors the methods of treating infertility. (HT only)
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(Separates only) What are the hormonal responses in plants to light and gravity called?
Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth and responses to light (phototropism) and gravity (gravitropism or geotropism).
(Separates only) Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth and responses to light (phototropism) and gravity (gravitropism or geotropism).
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(Separates only) What causes the unequal growth rates in shoots and roots that means plants can grow in specific directions?
Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots
(Separates only) Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots. (Required Practical)
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(HT) What role does Gibberellins have in a plant?
(HT) Gibberellins are important in initiating seed germination.
(Separates only) (HT only) Gibberellins are important in initiating seed germination.
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(HT) What role does Ethene have in a plant?
(HT) Ethene controls cell division and ripening of fruits.
(Separates only) (HT only) Ethene controls cell division and ripening of fruits.
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(Separates only) Give some uses of plant hormones that can be used to control plant growth
selective weedkillers, rooting powders (auxins), seedless fruits.
(Separates only) Students should be able to describe the effects of some plant hormones and the different ways people use them to control plant growth.
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(Separates only) What are plant hormones used by people in?
Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture
(Separates only) Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture
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(Separates only) What negative effect can the use of hormones as weed killers have?
Everyday use of hormones as weed killers has an effect on biodiversity.
(Separates only) Understand how the everyday use of hormones as weed killers has an effect on biodiversity.
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(Separates only) How do people use auxins?
Auxins are used: ? as weed killers ? as rooting powders ? for promoting growth in tissue culture.
(Separates only) Auxins are used: ? as weed killers ? as rooting powders ? for promoting growth in tissue culture.
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(Separates only) How do people use ethene?
Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage and transport.
(Separates only) Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage and transport.
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(Separates only) How do people use Gibberellins?
Gibberellins can be used to end seed dormancy, promote flowering and increase fruit size.
(Separates only) Gibberellins can be used to: ? end seed dormancy ? promote flowering ? increase fruit size.
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How is the structure of DNA described and what is a genome?
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix. The genome is the set of chromosomes in each haploid cell in an organism.
Students should be able to describe the structure of DNA and define genome.
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Where is DNA found in a cell?
Nucleus
The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is composed of a chemical called DNA.
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What is the structure of DNA like?
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix.
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix.
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How is DNA contained in the nucleus?
The DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes.
The DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes.
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What is a gene?
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.
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What is a genome?
The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that organism.
The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that organism.
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Why is the study of the human genome important?
Develop medicines in the future
The whole human genome has now been studied and this will have great importance for medicine in the future.
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What is the importance of sutdying the human genome?
finding genes linked to different types of diseases, treating inherited disorders, using in tracing human migration patterns in the past
Students should be able to discuss the importance of understanding the human genome.
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What is the structure of a nucleotide like?
Each nucleotide consists of a common sugar and phosphate group with one of four different bases attached to the sugar
Each nucleotide consists of a common sugar and phosphate group with one of four different bases attached to the sugar
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What are the letters used for the four DNA bases?
A, C, T and G.
DNA contains four bases, A, C, G and T.
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What is DNA?
DNA is a polymer made of four different nucleotides.
Students should be able to describe DNA as a polymer made from four different nucleotides.
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What controls which amino acid is made during protien synthesis?
A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid.
A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid.
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What controls which protien is made during protien synthesis?
The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein.
The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein.
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What are the different parts of DNA strcuture?
The long strands of DNA consist of alternating sugar and phosphate sections. Attached to each sugar is one of the four bases
The long strands of DNA consist of alternating sugar and phosphate sections. Attached to each sugar is one of the four bases
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What is the structure of a DNA polymer?
The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide units.
The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide units. Interpret a diagram of DNA structure but will not be required to reproduce it.
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What are the steps in protein synthesis? What happens in these steps?
The two steps in protein synthesis are transcription and translocation. During transcription an enzyme unwinds the DNA strands to make up two strands of RNA. Here complimentary bases match up with the RNA to form new strands. Then any sections of unused RNA are transcribed into proteins.
(HT only) Students should be able to recall a simple description of protein synthesis
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How does the structure of DNA affect the protien that is made during protien synthesis?
A set of three bases codes for a particular amino acid. The order of bases controls the order of animo acids, this controls what protien is made
explain simply how the structure of DNA affects the protein made
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How do genetic variants influence a persons phenotype through coding DNA and non coding DNA?
Coding DNA - by altering the activity of a protein Non-coding DNA - by altering how genes are expressed
describe how genetic variants may influence phenotype: a) in coding DNA by altering the activity of a protein: and b) in non-coding DNA by altering how genes are expressed
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What are the DNA base pairs?
In the complementary strands a C is always linked to a G on the opposite strand and a T to an A.
(HT only) In the complementary strands a C is always linked to a G on the opposite strand and a T to an A.
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How can a change in DNA structure result in a change in the protein synthesised by a gene?
A differnet order of DNA base pairs will cause a different amino acid to be made, this in turn could produce a different protein
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how a change in DNA structure may result in a change in the protein synthesised by a gene
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Where does protein synthesis take place in a cell?
Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template.
(HT only) Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template.
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What is the role of a carrier molecule in protein synthesis?
(HT only) Carrier molecules brings specific amino acids to add to the growing protein chain in the correct order
(HT only) Carrier molecules bring specific amino acids to add to the growing protein chain in the correct order
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Why is a proteins unique shape important?
This unique shape enables the proteins to do their job as enzymes, hormones or forming structures in the body such as collagen.
(HT only) When the protein chain is complete it folds up to form a unique shape. This unique shape enables the proteins to do their job as enzymes, hormones or forming structures in the body such as collagen.
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What happens to the number of chromosomes in gametes from meiosis? How is the full number of chromosomes restored?
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes. The full number is restored during fertilisation.
Students should be able to explain how meiosis halves the number of chromosomes in gametes and fertilisation restores the full number of chromosomes.
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How are gametes formed?
Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes.
Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes.
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What happens when a cell divides to form gametes? Are the gametes genetically identical or different?
First copies of the genetic information are made. Then the cell divides twice to form four gametes each with a single set of chromosomes. All gametes are genetically different from each other.
When a cell divides to form gametes: ? copies of the genetic information are made ? the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set of chromosomes ? all gametes are genetically different from each other.
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What happens during fertilisation? What happens to the cells as the embryo grows?
The gametes join and this restores the number of chromosomes. The new cell then divdes by mitosis and the number of cells increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.
Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the normal number of chromosomes. The new cell divides by mitosis. The number of cells increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.
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What sort of cells are produced during meiosis?
Meiosis produces non-identical cells.
Meiosis leads to non-identical cells being formed
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What sort of cells are produced during mitosis?
Mitosis produces identical cells.
Mitosis leads to identical cells being formed.
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What happens during meiosis? What are examples of gametes in animals and flowering plants?
During sexual reproduction male and female gametes are fused. The gametes of animals are sperm and egg cells and the gametes of flowering plants are pollen and egg cells.
Sexual reproduction involves the joining (fusion) of male and female gametes: ? sperm and egg cells in animals ? pollen and egg cells in flowering plants.
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How is variety gained during sexual reproduction?
Genetic information is mixed during sexual reproduction which leads to variety.
In sexual reproduction there is mixing of genetic information which leads to variety in the offspring.
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What process allows gametes to be formed?
Gametes are formed through meiosis.
The formation of gametes involves meiosis.
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How is asexual reproduction different to sexual reproduction?
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.
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How does asexual reproduction lead to clones?
There is no mixing of genetic information therefore all offspring is genetically identical.This is due to asexual reproduction using only mitosis.
There is no mixing of genetic information. This leads to genetically identical offspring (clones). Only mitosis is involved.
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What is the effect on the protein if one DNA base is altered due to a mutation?
Most do not alter the protein, or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed. (Mutations occur continuously)
(HT only) Mutations occur continuously. Most do not alter the protein, or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed.
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What is the effect on the protein if a few DNA bases are altered due to continious mutations?
A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
(HT only) A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
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The normal coding for a gene is GGA ATG. What is the type of mutation for: 1. GGC ATG 2. GGA AT
1. Insertion 2. Deletions
(HT only) Modelling insertions and deletions in chromosomes to illustrate mutations
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Why does a having few mutations in the DNA code cause problems?
A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
(HT only) A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
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How can mutations in non-coding parts of DNA affect how genes are expressed?
Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding parts of DNA can switch genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how genes are expressed.
(HT only) Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding parts of DNA can switch genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how genes are expressed.
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What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?
The advantages of sexual reproduction are that: ? produces variation in the offspring ? if the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by natural selection ? natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to increase food production.
Advantages of sexual reproduction: ? produces variation in the offspring ? if the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by natural selection ? natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to increase food production.
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What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?
The advantages of asecual reproduction are that: ? only one parent needed ? more time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate ? faster than sexual reproduction ? many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favourable.
Advantages of asexual reproduction: ? only one parent needed ? more time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate ? faster than sexual reproduction ? many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favourable.
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Do all organisms have to reproduce only sexually or asexually?
Some organisms reproduce by both methods depending on the circumstances.
Some organisms reproduce by both methods depending on the circumstances.
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What is the definition for gamete?
The male and female sex cells (sperm and egg)
Students should be able to explain the term chromosome
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What is the definition for a chromosome?
thread-like strcutures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA
Students should be able to explain the term gene
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What is the definition for a allele?
different forms of a gene
Students should be able to explain the term allele
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What is the definition for a dominant?
an allele that is expressed when one or two copies are present, represented with a capital letter
Students should be able to explain the term dominant
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What is the definition for a recessive?
two copies of a recessive allele must be present for the characteristic to be expressed, represented by lowercase letter
Students should be able to explain the term recessive
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What is the definition for a homozygous?
where two alleles that are the same for a characteristic
Students should be able to explain the term homozygous
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What is the definition for a hetrozygous?
where two different alleles for a characteristic
Students should be able to explain the term hetrozygous
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What is the definition for a genotype?
the alleles present for a particular gene
Students should be able to explain the term genotype
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What is the definition for a phenotype?
the characteristic that is shown or expressed
Students should be able to explain the term phenotype
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Give two examples of characteristics that are controlled by a single gene
1. fur colour in mice 2. red-green colour blindness in humans
Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as: fur colour in mice; and red-green colour blindness in humans. Each gene may have different forms called alleles.
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How are genotype and phenotype related?
The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to develop characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype.
The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to develop characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype.
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What is the phenotype when there is a dominant allele?
A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present.
A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present.
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What is the phenotype when there are two recessive alleles?
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
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What is the difference between homozygous and hetrozygous alleles?
If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous for that trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous.
If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous for that trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous.
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Are most characteristics controlled by single genes or multiple genes interacting?
Multiple genes interacting
Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a single gene.
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What is the probability of a child having homozygous recessive alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
1:4 / 25%
Students should be able to understand the concept of probability in predicting the results of a single gene cross, but recall that most phenotype features are the result of multiple genes rather than single gene inheritance
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What is the probability of a child having hetrozygous alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
2:4 / 50%
Students should be able to use direct proportion and simple ratios to express the outcome of a genetic cross.
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What is the probability of a child having a diseases that is carried on a dominant alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
3:4 / 75%
Students should be able to complete a Punnett square diagram and extract and interpret information from genetic crosses and family trees.
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What is the probability of a child having homozygous dominant alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
1:4 / 25%
(HT only) Students should be able to construct a genetic cross by Punnett square diagram and use it to make predictions using the theory of probability
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How are inherited diseases passed on?
These disorders are caused by the inheritance of certain alleles.
Some disorders are inherited. These disorders are caused by the inheritance of certain alleles.
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What causes polydactyly?
Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele.
Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele.
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What causes cystic fibrosis?
Cystic fibrosis (a respitory disease) is caused by a recessive allele, so both parents must carry the gene in order for the offspring to have the disease.
Cystic fibrosis (a respitory disease) is caused by a recessive allele, so both parents must carry the gene in order for the offspring to have the disease.
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What are the economical, social and ethical issues concerning embryo screening?
Embyro screening is expensive, can damage/kill the embryo, can prevent suffering, some people believe all life is valueable despite disease
Students should make informed judgements about the economic, social and ethical issues concerning embryo screening, given appropriate information. Appreciate that embryo screening and gene therapy may alleviate suffering but consider the ethical issues which arise.
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How many chromosomes are found in an ordinary human body cell?
Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
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What does the 23rd choromsome determine?
sex (male or female)
22 pairs control characteristics only, but one of the pairs carries the genes that determine sex.
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What is combination of sex chorosomes for a male and female?
? In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX). ? In males the chromosomes are different (XY).
? In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX). ? In males the chromosomes are different (XY).
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Draw a genetic cross to show sex inheritance
Students should be able to carry out a genetic cross to show sex inheritance.
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What is the probability of having a male or female offpsring?
1:1 / 50%
Students should understand and use direct proportion and simple ratios in genetic crosses.
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How have organisms been classified traditionally and who by?
Traditionally living things have been classified into groups depending on their structure and characteristics in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus
Traditionally living things have been classified into groups depending on their structure and characteristics in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus
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What did Linnaeus classify all living things into?
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
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How are organisms named scientifically?
Organisms are named scientifically first by the genus and then by the species.
Organisms are named by the binomial system of genus and species.
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What development lead to new models of classification and how?
As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed.
As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed. (WS) Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time.
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Who developed the 'three-domain system' and how are organisms in this system classified?
Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a ?three- domain system? developed by Carl Woese. In this system organisms are divided into: ? archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments) ? bacteria (true bacteria) ? eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals).
Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a ?three- domain system? developed by Carl Woese. In this system organisms are divided into: ? archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments) ? bacteria (true bacteria) ? eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals).
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Why are evolutionary trees used by scientists and what data do they use for it?
Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.
Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.
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How does the genome and the environment influence the development of phenotype?
An organisms genome depends on the alleles that the organism inherits. Dominant characteristics inherited from the parents will be expressed always. If no dominant alleles are present then the recessive ones will be expressed. The environment can also affect certain phenotypes through variations in climate diet, physical accidents, culture and lifestyle.
Students should be able to describe simply how the genome and its interaction with the environment influence the development of the phenotype of an organism
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How do differences in the characteristics of individuals occur?
Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is called variation and may be due to differences in: - the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) - the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes) - a combination of genes and the environment
Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is called variation and may be due to differences in: - the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) - the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes) - a combination of genes and the environment
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How much genetic variation is usually within a population?
There is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species.
Students should be able to state that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species
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When is a recessive allele expressed?
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
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(Biology only) How often do mutations occur and how often do they lead to a new phenotype? What happens when a new phenotype is suited to an environmental change?
(Biology only) Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change it can lead to a relatively rapid change in the species.
(Biology only) Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change it can lead to a relatively rapid change in the species. There are links with this content to Speciation (biology only).
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What is evolution?
Evolution is a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection which may result in the formation of a new species.
Students should be able to describe evolution as a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection which may result in the formation of a new species.
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What does the theory of evolution state?
The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago.
The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago.
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How does evolution occur?
Evolution occurs through the natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their environment.
Students should be able to explain how evolution occurs through natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their environment. Use the theory of evolution by natural selection in an explanation.
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How is a new species formed?
If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed two new species.
If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed two new species.
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What are the impacts of selective breeding of food plants and domesticated animals?
Selective breeding will lead to narrowing of the gene pool. This means that potential future diseases could be more problematic as a larger percentage of the population would be affected. Selective breeding would also reduce variety in the future and could lead to problems relating to recessive genes.
Students should be able to explain the impact of selective breeding of food plants and domesticated animals.
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What is selective breeding and how long have humans been doing it?
Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have been doing this for thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals.
Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have been doing this for thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals.
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How do humans carry out selective breeding?
Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired characteristic from a mixed population. They are bred together. From the offspring those with the desired characteristic are bred together. This continues over many generations until all the offspring show the desired characteristic.
Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired characteristic from a mixed population. They are bred together. From the offspring those with the desired characteristic are bred together. This continues over many generations until all the offspring show the desired characteristic.
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Why are certain characteristics chosen during selective breeding? What are some examples of these in plants and animals?
The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance: ? Disease resistance in food crops. ? Animals which produce more meat or milk. ? Domestic dogs with a gentle nature. ? Large or unusual flowers.
The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance: ? Disease resistance in food crops. ? Animals which produce more meat or milk. ? Domestic dogs with a gentle nature. ? Large or unusual flowers.
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What disadvantages can selective breeding have?
Selective breeding can lead to ?inbreeding? where some breeds are particularly prone to disease or inherited defects.
Selective breeding can lead to ?inbreeding? where some breeds are particularly prone to disease or inherited defects.
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What evidence is there to support Darwin's theory of evolution?
Evidence for Darwin's theory is now available as it has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is further evidence in the fossil record and the knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria.
Evidence for Darwin's theory is now available as it has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is further evidence in the fossil record and the knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria.
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How did Oregor Mendal develop our understanding of genetics?
Oregor Mendel (1822-1884) studied the inheritance of different characteristics in pea plants. He found that when he bred red-flowered plants with white-flowered plants, all the offspring produced red flowers. If he bred these plants with each other, most of the offspring had red flowers, but some had white. This was because the allele for red flowers is dominant, and the allele for white flowers is recessive.
Students should be able to describe the development of our understanding of genetics including the work of Mendel
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Why was the importance of Mendel's discovery not accepted until after his death?
It took long time for Mendel's ideas to be accepted. That was because scientists did not know about chromosomes and genes until after Mendel died. Also, Mendel was a monk, not a scientist, and his work was not widely published or published at all in any science journal.
Students should be able to understand why the importance of Mendel's discovery was not recognised until after his death.
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What observation did Mendel make of the inheritance of plants?
In the mid-19th century Oregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments on plants. One of his observations was that the inheritance of each characteristic is determined by ?units? that are passed on to descendants unchanged.
In the mid-19th century Oregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments on plants. One of his observations was that the inheritance of each characteristic is determined by ?units? that are passed on to descendants unchanged.
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What wasn't observed about cell division until the late 19th century?
The behaviour of chromosomes.
In the late 19th century behaviour of chromosomes during cell division was observed
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What happened in the early 20th century to link Mendel's 'units' and chromosomes and what idea did this lead to?
In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and Mendel?s ?units? behaved in similar ways. This led to the idea that the 'units', now called genes, were located on chromosomes.
In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and Mendel?s ?units? behaved in similar ways. This led to the idea that the ?units?, now called genes, were located on chromosomes. There are links with this content to Oenetic inheritance.
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What happened in the mid-20th century to further develop gene theory?
In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and the mechanism of gene function worked out.
In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and the mechanism of gene function worked out. There are links with this content to Oenetic inheritance.
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What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism to give a desired characteristic.
Students should be able to describe genetic engineering as a process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism to give a desired characteristic
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What examples are there of genetic engineering in plant crops?
An example of genetic engineering is plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.
An example of genetic engineering is plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.
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(Biology only) What examples in medicine uses genetically engineered bacteria?
(Biology only) Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful substances such as human insulin to treat diabetes.
Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful substances such as human insulin to treat diabetes. There are links with this content to role of biotechnology. (biology only).
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What are the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering in agriculture and medicine?
Some potential benefits of genetic engineering are improving yeild and productivity in crops for growing in harsher climates, giving rise to new potential medicines for hard to cure diseases and the potenital elimination of life threating genetic diseases. Some potential risks of genetic engineering are the introduction of resistant strains of detrimental micro-organism, lowering variation and therefore risking evolution and objections due to organisms becoming unatural and humans having too much power.
Students should be able to explain the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering in agriculture and in medicine and that some people have objections
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What occurs within the chromosomes during genetic engineering?
Genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ?cut out? and transferred to cells of other organisms.
In genetic engineering, genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ?cut out? and transferred to cells of other organisms.
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What do we call crops that have genes from other organisms in them?
Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called genetically modified (GM) crops.
Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called genetically modified (GM) crops.
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How does genetic modification increase the longevity of crops?
GM crops include ones that are resistant to insect attack or to herbicides.
GM crops include ones that are resistant to insect attack or to herbicides.
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How does genetic modification increase the yield of a crop?
GM crops generally show increased yields.
GM crops generally show increased yields.
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What concerns are there about GM crops?
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild flowers and insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully explored.
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild flowers and insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully explored.
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How is genetic modification important in medicine?
Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to overcome some inherited disorders.
Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to overcome some inherited disorders
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(HT only) What are the steps involved in genetic engineering?
(HT only) 1. enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus 2. the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells 3. genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics.
(HT only) In genetic engineering: - enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus - the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells - genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics. Interpret information about genetic engineering techniques and to make informed judgements about issues concerning cloning and genetic engineering, including OM crops.
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How does the technique of tissue culturing enable cloning? Why is this important for plants?
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries.
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries.
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What way, other than tissue culture, can plants be cloned by gardeners?
Through using cuttings to produce many identical new plants from a parent plant.
Cuttings: an older, but simple, method used by gardeners to produce many identical new plants from a parent plant.
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How is embryo transplant cloning carried out?
Embryo transplant cloning happens by splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers.
Embryo transplants: splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers.
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What are the steps involved in adult cell cloning?
1. The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell. 2. The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell. 3. An electric shock stimulates the egg cell to divide to form an embryo. 4. These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell. 5. When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.
The process of adult cell cloning: ? The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell. ? The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell. ? An electric shock stimulates the egg cell to divide to form an embryo. ? These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell. ? When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.
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What are the potential benefits and risks involved in cloning and why do some people object?
Benefits: All the new plants are genetically identical ? they will all have the desired characteristics. Organisms that are difficult or slow to breed normally can be reproduced quickly. Some plant varieties do not produce seeds, others have seeds that are dormant for long periods. Risks: If a clone is susceptible to disease or changes in environment, then all the clones will be susceptible. It will lead to less variation, and less opportunity to create new varieties in the future. Some people object to cloning as they feel it is unethical and unatural to clone. Some people object on religious grounds as well.
Explain the potential benefits and risks of cloning in agriculture and in medicine and that some people have ethical objections.
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How did Charles Darwin come up with the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin, as a result of observations on a round the world expedition, backed by years of experimentation and discussion and linked to developing knowledge of geology and fossils, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Charles Darwin, as a result of observations on a round the world expedition, backed by years of experimentation and discussion and linked to developing knowledge of geology and fossils, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
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What does the theory of eveolution by natural selection involve?
Theory of evolution by natural selection invovles: ? Individual organisms within a particular species show a wide range of variation for a characteristic. ? Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully. ? The characteristics that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation.
Theory of evolution by natural selection invovles: ? Individual organisms within a particular species show a wide range of variation for a characteristic. ? Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully. ? The characteristics that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation.
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What lead to the development of the theory of evolution by natural selection?
The theory of evolution by natural selection was developed over time and from information gathered by many scientists and he development of the social climate at the time.
Students should appreciate that the theory of evolution by natural selection developed over time and from information gathered by many scientists.
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What was the name of the book that Charles Darwin published his ideas in andwere people happy with it?
Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859). There was much controversy surrounding these revolutionary new ideas.
Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859). There was much controversy surrounding these revolutionary new ideas.
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Why did it take a long time for the theory of evolution by natural selection to be accepted?
The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted because: ? the theory challenged the idea that Ood made all the animals and plants that live on Earth ? there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists ? the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was published.
The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted because: ? the theory challenged the idea that Ood made all the animals and plants that live on Earth ? there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists ? the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was published.
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What was Lamarck's theory?
Lamarck's theory was that changes in an organism only occur during its lifetime and are then inhertted.
Other theories, including that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, are based mainly on the idea that changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited. We now know that in the vast majority of cases this type of inheritance cannot occur. A study of creationism is not required.
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What was the impact of Darwin and Wallace's ideas?
Darwin and Wallace's ideas lead to the realisation that life on earth evolved from a common organism eventually branching off into different species and families.
Students should be able to explain the impact of these ideas on biology
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Who was Alfred Russell Wallace and how is he linked to Charles Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. He published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 which prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year.
Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. He published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 which prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year.
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What is Wallace best known for?
Wallace worked worldwide gathering evidence for evolutionary theory. He is best known for his work on warning colouration in animals and his theory of speciation.
Wallace worked worldwide gathering evidence for evolutionary theory. He is best known for his work on warning colouration in animals and his theory of speciation.
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What was needed to support Alfred Wallace's work in order to lead to our current understanding of the theory of speciation?
Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over time has led to our current understanding of the theory of speciation.
Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over time has led to our current understanding of the theory of speciation
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In what ways do new species arise? How are these described?
New species can arise as a result of: Isolation - where two species become geographically separated each evolving in such a way that they can no longer breed. Oenetic variation - where each population has a wide range of alleles that control their characteristics Natural selection - where the alleles which help an organism to survive are selected in each population Speciation - where the populations become so different that successful interbreeding cannot happen anymore
Students should be able to describe the steps which give rise to new species. The theory of speciation has developed over time
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What evidence is there now to support Darwin'stheory of evolution?
We have now unearthed fossils which we have been able to sequence the genomes of as well aslook at similar characteristics which have developed over time in a range of fossilised remains. Testing of antibiotic resistant bacteria has also shown rapid evolution within the species in order to help them survive treatment with antibiotics.
Students should be able to describe the evidence for evolution including fossils and antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
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What are fossils?
Fossils are the remains of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks.
Fossils are the remains of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks.
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How can fossils be formed?
Fossils may be formed: ? from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for decay are absent ? when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay ? as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces.
Fossils may be formed: - from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for decay are absent - when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay - as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces.
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Why is there little evidence of very early life forms?
Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few traces behind.
Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few traces behind.
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Why can we not be certain of how life on earthformed even from hard bodied organisms?
What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity. This is why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.
What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity. This is why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.
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What is the main thing we can learn from fossils?
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
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Why is the fossil record described as incomplete?
Due to the constantly changing earth many fossils have been lost to us due to geographical changes suchas volcanoes and earth quakes. Some fossils have simply yet to be found and others still lie beneath the oceans.
Appreciate why the fossil record is incomplete
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How do scientific methods and theories develop over time?
Scientists constantly refine scientific methods by replicating them and finding and fixing flaws through new technology or knowledge. Theories are also challenged and evidence gathered regularly.
Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time.
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What is extinction?
Extinction occurs when there are remaining individuals or a species still alive.
Extinctions occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive.
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What are some of the factors that contribute to extinction?
Extinctions can occur when: changes to the environment occur, such as a change in climate, new diseases, new predators and new competitors.
Students should be able to describe factors which may contribute to the extinction of a species
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Why can bacteria evolve rapidly?
Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate.
Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate.
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What are the stages of antibacterial resistance?
Stages of antibacterial resistance include: 1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. 2. Some strains might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. 3. They survive and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain rises. 4. The resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
Stages of antibacterial resistance include: 1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. 2. Some strains might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. 3. They survive and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain rises. 4. The resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
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What is the bacteria MRSA resistant to?
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics.
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics. There are links with this content to Antibiotics and painkillers.
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What should be done to reduce the rate of development of antibiotc resistant bacteria?
To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains: ? doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as treating non-serious or viral infections ? patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains ? the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.
To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains: ? doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as treating non-serious or viral infections ? patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains ? the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.
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Why can't medical professionals just produce new antibiotics to fight resistant bacteria?
The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains
The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains
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What are the different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual organisms to the whole ecosystem?
Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem.
Students should be able to describe different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual organisms to the whole ecosystem
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What is the importance of interdependence and competition in a community?
Interdependence - balance in population numbers of species, increased net productivity, predator prey cycles, mutualistic relationships. Competition - gives something natural selection to work for, separation of niches between species.
Students should be able to describe the importance of interdependence and competition in a community.
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What factors are organisms competing for in a given habitat?
plants are competing for light, space, nutrients, water. Animals are competing for food, water, shelter, territory, mates.
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information suggest the factors for which organisms are competing in a given habitat
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What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotic) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment.
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotic) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment.
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What do organisms require to survive?
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there.
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there.
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What do plants compete for?
Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for light and space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil.
Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for light and space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil.
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What do animals compete for?
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
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What do species within a community depend on each other for?
Within a community each species depends on other species for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is removed it can affect the whole community. This is called interdependence.
Within a community each species depends on other species for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is removed it can affect the whole community. This is called interdependence.
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What is a stable community?
A stable community is one where all the species and environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes remain fairly constant.
A stable community is one where all the species and environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes remain fairly constant.
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What is an abiotic factor?
An abiotic factor is a non-living factor.
Students should be able to explain how a change in an abiotic factor would affect a given community given appropriate data or context.
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What abiotic (non-living) factors affect a community?
Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are: light intensity temperature moisture levels soil pH and mineral content wind intensity and direction carbon dioxide levels for plants oxygen levels for aquatic animals.
Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are: - light intensity - temperature - moisture levels - soil pH and mineral content - wind intensity and direction - carbon dioxide levels for plants - oxygen levels for aquatic animals.
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What is a biotic factor?
A living factor.
Students should be able to explain how a change in a biotic factor might affect a given community given appropriate data or context.
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What types of Biotic (living) factors affect a community?
Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are: ? availability of food ? new predators arriving ? new pathogens ? one species outcompeting another so the numbers are no longer sufficient to breed.
Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are: - availability of food - new predators arriving - new pathogens - one species out-competing another so the numbers are no longer sufficient to breed.
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What are the producers of biomass for life on Earth?
photosynthetic organisms are the producers of biomass for life on Earth.
Students should understand that photosynthetic organisms are the producers of biomass for life on Earth.
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How can feeding relationships be represented?
Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by food chains.
Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by food chains.
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What do all food chains begin with?
Food chains begin with a producer which synthesises molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which makes glucose by photosynthesis.
All food chains begin with a producer which synthesises molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which makes glucose by photosynthesis.
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What is the difference between mean, mode and median?
Mean = add all the repeats up and divide by the number of repeats. Mode = the number that occurs the most. Median = the middle number when all repeats are put in order from smallest to largest
In relation to abundance of organisms students should be able to understand the terms mean, mode and median (MS)
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What is the order of energy transfer between secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, producer and primary consumer
producer -> primary consumer -> secondary consumer -> tertiary consumer.
Producers are eaten by primary consumers, which in turn may be eaten by secondary consumers and then tertiary consumers
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What is an organism that eats a consumer called? What is a consumer that is eaten by another consumer called?
Predator eats another consumer. Prey are consumers that are eaten by another consumer.
Consumers that kill and eat other animals are predators, and those eaten are prey.
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What is a predator-prey cycle?
In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in cycles, dependent on the numbers of each.
In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in cycles.
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What is an adaptation?
A characteristic about a species that allows it to be suited to the environment it lives.
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information suggest how organisms are adapted to the conditions in which they live.
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How are organisms adapted to live in their natural environment?
Organisms become adapted to their natural environment by evolution through natural selection.
Students should be able to explain how organisms are adapted to live in their natural environment, given appropriate information.
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What are the three types of adaptations organisms can have to survive in the conditions that they live?
Adaptations may be structural, behavioural or functional
Organisms have features (adaptations) that enable them to survive in the conditions in which they normally live. These adaptations may be structural, behavioural or functional
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What is an extremophile?
Organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as high temperature, pressure, or salt concentration
Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as at high temperature, pressure, or salt concentration. These organisms are called extremophiles.
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What type of microbe lives in deep sea vents?
Bacteria live in deep sea vents.
Bacteria living in deep sea vents are extremophiles.
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When would a transect line be used?
A transect line would be used to see a pattern/trend/correlation across a distance of an ecosystem in relation to an independent variable.
A range of experimental methods using transects and quadrats are used by ecologists to determine the distribution and abundance of species in an ecosystem. Required Practical 9 - Sampling Techniques (AT skills 1,3,4,6,8)
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What different parts of the ecosystem do materials cycle through?
Many different materials cycle through the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem.
Students should recall that many different materials cycle through the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem
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Why is it important that carbon and water are cycled through the ecosystem.
It is important that carbon and water are cycled through the ecosystem because there is only a finite number atoms.
Students should be able to explain the importance of the carbon and water cycles to living organisms
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Why do materials need to be recycled?
Materials need to be recycled to provide the building blocks for future organisms.
All materials in the living world are recycled to provide the building blocks for future organisms. Students are not expected to study the nitrogen cycle.
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What process are carbon to be cycled from A) carbon dioxide to producers, B) producers to consumers, C) Producers/consumers/decomposers to carbon dioxide and D) fossil fuels to carbon dioxide
A) Photosynthesis cycles carbon dioxide to producers. B) Feeding cycles producers to consumers. C) Respiration cycles producers/consumers/decomposers to carbon dioxide D) Combustion cycles fossil fuels to carbon dioxide.
The carbon cycle returns carbon from organisms to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide to be used by plants in photosynthesis.
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How do microorganisms help to cycle material through an ecosystem?
Microorganisms help cycling material by returning carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil.
Students should be able to explain the role of microorganisms in cycling materials through an ecosystem by returning carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil.
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Why is precipitation important for organisms in ecosystems?
Precipitation provides fresh water for plants and animals on land before it drains into the seas.
The water cycle provides fresh water for plants and animals on land before draining into the seas.
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How does water get from the land to the air and the air back to the land?
water turns to water vapour in the air through evaporation and returns to the land through precipitation.
Water is continuously evaporated and precipitated.
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What three factors affect the rate of decay of biological material?
Temperature, water and the availability of oxygen affect the rate of decay.
Students should be able to explain how temperature, water and availability of oxygen affect the rate of decay of biological material.
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Name two groups of people would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
gardeners and farmers would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
Gardeners and farmers try to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
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Why would gardeners and farmers want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste material.
gardeners and farmers would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste material to provide compost as a natural fertiliser for their soils for growing plants.
The compost produced is used as a natural fertiliser for growing garden plants or crops.
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Under what conditions can decay produce methane that can be used a biogas fuel?
Anaerobic condition can produce methane gas. Biogas generators can be used to produce methane gas as a fuel.
Anaerobic decay produces methane gas. Biogas generators can be used to produce methane gas as a fuel.
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How might changes to the environment affect species?
Environmental changes affect the distribution of species in an ecosystem.
Environmental changes affect the distribution of species in an ecosystem.
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What are potential environmental changes?
Environmental changes include: temperature availability of water composition of atmospheric gases.
These changes include: - temperature - availability of water - composition of atmospheric gases.
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What might be some causes of changes in the environment?
Environmental changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused by human interaction.
The changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused by human interaction.
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How can an increase in human population affect pollution?
Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the standard of living mean that increasingly more resources are used and more waste is produced. Unless waste and chemical materials are properly handled, more pollution will be caused.
Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the standard of living mean that increasingly more resources are used and more waste is produced. Unless waste and chemical materials are properly handled, more pollution will be caused.
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Where can pollution occur and what does it occur from?
Pollution can occur: - in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals - in air, from smoke and acidic gases - on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals.
Pollution can occur: ? in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals ? in air, from smoke and acidic gases ? on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals.
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How can pollution affect biodiversity?
Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity.
Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity
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What are the environmental implications of deforestation?
Deforestation vastly affects the environment as well as reducing biodiversity. This occurs due to forest habitats being destroyed, soil erosion increasing, which causes barren land, flooding and land slides. Also atmospheric pollution is caused when forests are cleared by burning trees increasing global warming.
(WS) Evaluate the environmental implications of deforestation
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What are the biological consequences of global warming?
A rise of just a few degrees in world temperatures will have a dramatic impact on the climate: Global weather patterns will change, causing drought in some places and flooding in others. Melting of polar ice caps will raise sea levels, causing increased coastal erosion and flooding of low-lying land – including land where major cities lie.
Students should be able to describe some of the biological consequences of global warming
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Why is global warming increasing?
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are increasing, and these contribute to global warming.
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are increasing, and contribute to ?global warming?.
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What does the scientific consensus say about global warming and climate change?
The scientific consensus about global warming and climate change is based on systematic reviews of thousands of peer reviewed publications.
(WS) Understand that the scientific consensus about global warming and climate change is based on systematic reviews of thousands of peer reviewed publications.
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(WS) Explain why evidence is uncertain or incomplete in a complex context
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What is the definition of biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on earth, or within an ecosystem.
Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on earth, or within an ecosystem.
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How do humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals?
Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and plants by building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste.
Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and plants by building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste
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What is the benefit of having a great biodiversity?
A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance of the physical environment.
A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance of the physical environment.
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How does the destruction of peat bogs affect biodiversity?
The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce garden compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the variety of different plant, animal and microorganism species that live there (biodiversity).
The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce garden compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the variety of different plant, animal and microorganism species that live there (biodiversity).
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Why is it so important to maintain biodiversity?
The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining a good level of biodiversity.
The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining a good level of biodiversity.
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What does the decay or burning of peat lead to?
The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
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What effect to human activities have on biodiversity in general?
Many human activities are reducing biodiversity and only recently have measures been taken to try to stop this reduction.
Many human activities are reducing biodiversity and only recently have measures been taken to try to stop this reduction.
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Why is there conflict of opinion when it comes to the peat industry?
There is a need for cheap available compost to increase food production and the need to conserve peat bogs and peatlands as habitats for biodiversity and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
(WS) Understand the conflict between the need for cheap available compost to increase food production and the need to conserve peat bogs and peatlands as habitats for biodiversity and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
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What effect do waste, deforestation and global warming have on biodiversity?
Deforestation destroys the habitats of many species and therefore reduces their numbers within an environment. This reduces biodiversity drastically. Waste can have toxic effects on many species and therefore reduces numbers. In other cases, such as with algae, certain wastes can increase the numbers of certain species meaning they have a detrimental effect on the others around them. Global warming is causing the Earth's temperature to increase. This is having an effect on many species as it is changing their environment and therefore causing them problems such as lack of food or habitat.
(WS) Explain how waste, deforestation and global warming have an impact on biodiversity.
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What two main reasons are there for large-scale deforestation in tropical areas?
Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred due to: - providing land for cattle and rice fields - growing crops for biofuels.
Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred to: ? provide land for cattle and rice fields ? grow crops for biofuels.
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What is the impact of both positive and negative human interactions in an ecosystem?
Positive impact increases population levels of certain species in a food chain. Negative impacts decrease population levels of certain species.
Students should be able to describe both positive and negative human interactions in an ecosystem and explain their impact on biodiversity.
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Why have scientists and concerned citizens had to put programmes in place to protect the environment?
Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to reduce the negative effects of humans on ecosystems and biodiversity.
Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to reduce the negative effects of humans on ecosystems and biodiversity
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What are some of the programmes put in place by scientists and concerned citizens to protect the environment?
Some of the programmes put in place to protect the environment are: - breeding programmes for endangered species - protection and regeneration of rare habitats - reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural areas where farmers grow only one type of crop - reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by some governments - recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill.
These include: ? breeding programmes for endangered species ? protection and regeneration of rare habitats ? reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural areas where farmers grow only one type of crop ? reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by some governments ? recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill.
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What is the difference between a producer and primary consumer?
A producer is a green plant or algae that gains energy through photosynthesis. A primary consumer is a herbivore or omnivore that eats the producer.
Students should be able to describe the differences between the trophic levels of organisms within an ecosystem
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What is a producer?
Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
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What is a primary consumer?
Herbivores eat plants/algae and are called primary consumers.
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants/algae and are called primary consumers
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What are predators that eat herbivores called?
Predators that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers
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What is an apex predator?
Apex predators are carnivores or omnivores with no predators.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Apex predators are carnivores with no predators.
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What is the role of a decomposer and how do they do it?
Decomposers break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes into the environment.
Decomposers break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes into the environment.
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How do the food molecules broken down by decomposers get into the microorganism?
The food molecules get into the microorganism through diffusion.
Small soluble food molecules then diffuse into the microorganism.
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What do pyramids of biomass represent and where can trophic level 1 be found?
Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent the relative amount of biomass in each level of a food chain. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of the pyramid.
Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent the relative amount of biomass in each level of a food chain. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of the pyramid
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What is the shape of a pyramid of biomass?
A pyramid of biomass is large at the bottom and narrower at the top.
Students should be able to describe pyramids of biomass
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How is biomass lost between different trophic levels?
Biomass is lost at each trophic level through not being digested, being excreted or being used as energy by the organism.
Students should be able to explain how biomass is lost between the different trophic levels
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Name examples of producers.
Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident energy from light for photosynthesis.
Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident energy from light for photosynthesis.
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What % of biomass is transferred up each trophic level?
Only approximately 10 % of the biomass is transferred up each trophic level.
Only approximately 10 % of the biomass is transferred up each trophic level.
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What are losses of biomass due to?
Losses of biomass are due to: - not all the ingested material is absorbed, some is egested as faeces - some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and water in respiration and water and urea in urine.
Losses of biomass are due to: ? not all the ingested material is absorbed, some is egested as faeces ? some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and water in respiration and water and urea in urine.
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What is used in respiration?
Large amounts of glucose are used in respiration
Large amounts of glucose are used in respiration.
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If the producer trophic level has 4200J of energy and the primary consumer has 800J what is the efficiency of transfer between these trophic levels?
800J/4200J = 0.19 Which is 19%
(MS) Calculate the efficiency of biomass transfer between trophic levels.
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How can the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels be calculated?
To calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels, percentages or fractions of mass must be used.
Students should be able to calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels by percentages or fractions of mass.
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How does lost biomass affect the amount of organisms at each trophic level?
The loss of biomass means that the number of organisms decrease at each trophic level as the amount of energy passed on between the trophic levels decreases.
Students should be able to explain how this affects the number of organisms at each trophic level
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What are the biological factors that affect food security?
The production of plants and animals for food ultimately depends on the factors that control plant growth - light availability, available nutrients and water in the soil, and competition with other plants.
Students should be able to describe some of the biological factors affecting levels of food security
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What does food security mean?
Food security is having enough food to feed a population.
Food security is having enough food to feed a population.
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What are some of the Biological factors which are threatening food security?
The following factors are threatening food security: -Increased birth rate. -changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources are transported around the world -new pests and pathogens that affect farming. -environmental changes that affect food production, such as widespread famine occurring in some countries if rains fail -the cost of agricultural inputs -conflicts that have arisen in some parts of the world which affect the availability of water or food.
Biological factors which are threatening food security include: ? the increasing birth rate has threatened food security in some countries ? changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources are transported around the world ? new pests and pathogens that affect farming ? environmental changes that affect food production, such as widespread famine occurring in some countries if rains fail ? the cost of agricultural inputs ? conflicts that have arisen in some parts of the world which affect the availability of water or food.
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What type of method should be used to feed all people on Earth?
Sustainable methods must be found to feed all people on Earth
Sustainable methods must be found to feed all people on Earth
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How could the efficiency of food production be improved?
The efficiency of food production can be improved by restricting energy transfer from food animals to the environment.
The efficiency of food production can be improved by restricting energy transfer from food animals to the environment.
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Why are some animals fed high protein foods?
Some animals are fed high protein foods to increase growth.
Some animals are fed high protein foods to increase growth.
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Why do some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods?
Some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods because it reduces variation in plant species that could lead to a crop being wiped out by disease.
(WS) Understand that some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods.
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Give an advantages and disadvantages of modern farming techniques.
An advantage of modern farming techniques is increased yield. A disadvantage is a lack of diversity in a crop.
(WS) Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of modern farming techniques.
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Why is it important to maintain fish stock levels in the sea?
Fish stock levels are declining. It is important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether in some areas
Fish stocks in the oceans are declining. It is important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether in some areas
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What plays an important part in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level?
Control of net size and the introduction of fishing quotas play important roles in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level
Control of net size and the introduction of fishing quotas play important roles in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level
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What is the most sustainable way of fishing?
Use pole and line fishing techniques instead of nets.
(WS) Understand how application of different fishing techniques promotes recovery of fish stocks
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How can genetic modification be used to increase crop yield to meet the demands of a growing population.
Crops can be gentetically modified to be resistant to pests that could harm to crop.
Students should be able to describe and explain some possible biotechnical and agricultural solutions, including genetic modification, to the demands of the growing human population
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What can modern biotechnology techniques be used for?
Modern biotechnology techniques enable large quantities of microorganisms to be cultured for food.
Modern biotechnology techniques enable large quantities of microorganisms to be cultured for food.
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Why is the fungus Fusarium useful?
The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein, a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians.
The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein, a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians.
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How can a fungus be grown?
The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified
The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified
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Give an example where a genetically modified bacterium can be used.
A genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin. When harvested and purified this is used to treat people with diabetes.
A genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin. When harvested and purified this is used to treat people with diabetes.
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What type of crop could provide more food or food with an improved nutritional value?
Golden Rice provides improved nutritional value?
GM crops could provide more food or food with an improved nutritional value such as golden rice
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How can the rate of a chemical reaction be calculated?
The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over time: mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used / time taken OR mean rate of reaction = quantity of product formed / time taken
The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over time: mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used / time taken OR mean rate of reaction = quantity of product formed / time taken
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How is the quantity of a reactant or product measured?
The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in grams or by a volume in cm3.
The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in grams or by a volume in cm3.
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What are the units for rate of reaction?
The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s.
The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s.
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(HT only) What is the third unit that is used to measure the rate of reaction in terms of moles?
(HT only) The quantity of reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s.
Students are also required to use quantity of reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s. (HT only)
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What would the total amount of a product formed if the rate of reaction is 4g/s and the reaction continues for 3 minutes?
The total amount of product formed if the rate of reaction is 4g/s and the reaction continues for 3 minutes would be 540g. This is worked out by: 3 x 60 = 180s 4g x 180s = 540g
Students should be able to calculate the mean rate of a reaction from given information about the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of a product formed and the time taken
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What key features must be included for graphs showing the quantity of product formed or quantity of reactant used up against time?
The key features of a graph to show the quantity of product formed or reactant used up would be an appropriate scale, labels with units and a line of best fit excluding anomalies.
Students should be able to draw, and interpret, graphs showing the quantity of product formed or quantity of reactant used up against time
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How do you draw a tangent on a curve to measure the rate of a reaction on a graph?
To draw a tangent on a curve to measure the rate of reaction you should find a straight part of the curve of best fit. The slope of the tangent can be used to measure the rate reaction. The steeper the tangent the faster the rate of the reaction.
Students should be able to draw tangents to the curves on these graphs and use the slope of the tangent as a measure of the rate of reaction
0
(HT only) How do you calculate the gradient of a tangent of a curve from a graph?
(HT only) To calculate the gradient of a tangent: 1. choose any two points on the line. 2. draw a right-angled triangle with the line as hypotenuse. 3. use the scale on each axis to find the triangle's: vertical length. horizontal length. 4. work out the vertical length ÷ horizontal length. 5. the result is the gradient of the line
Students should be able to (HT only) calculate the gradient of a tangent to the curve on these graphs as a measure of rate of reaction at a specific time.
0
What are the main principals of the collision theory?
Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
0
What factors can affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the presence of catalysts.
Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the presence of catalysts.
0
What does the term activation energy mean?
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
0
How does increasing the temperature increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions more energetic, and so increases the rate of reaction.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
0
How does increasing the pressure of reacting gases affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the pressure of reactant gases increases the rate of chemical reactions.
Students should be able to recall how changing the pressure of reacting gases affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does decreasing the temperature of a chemical reaction affect the rate?
Decreasing the temperature of a chemical reaction decreases the rate of the reaction.
Students should be able to recall how changing the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does increasing the surface area to volume ration of a solid reactant affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the surface area to volume ratio will increase the rate of the chemical reaction because the there will be more contact between the reactant particles. Increasing the frequency of successful collisions.
Students should be able to predict and explain the effects of changes in the size of pieces of a reacting solid in terms of surface area to volume ratio
0
How does increasing the concentration of reactants in reacting gases, and the surface solution, the pressure of area of solid reactants increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, and the surface area of solid reactants increases the frequency of collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
Increasing the concentration increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
0
How does increasing the concentration of reactants in solution affect the rate of chemical reactions?
Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution increases the rate of chemical reactions.
Students should be able to recall how changing the concentrations of reactants in solution affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does changing the concentration of a reactant from 1M to 2M affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
When the reactant concentration is 2M there are twice as many particles to react. This means the time it would take for the same number of successful collisions will half.
Students should be able to use simple ideas about proportionality when using collision theory to explain the effect of a factor on the rate of a reaction.
0
How does increasing the concentration of a solution reactant or the pressure of a gas reactant affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the concentration of a solution reactant or the pressure of a gas reactant will increase the rate of a chemical reaction because there would a higher number of particles in the same area, therefore successful collisions between reactants particles will be more frequent, increasing the rate of reaction.
Students should be able to predict and explain using collision theory the effects of changing conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature on the rate of a reaction
0
How does increasing the surface area of solid reactants affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the surface area of solid reactants will increase the rate of a chemical reaction.
Students should be able to recall how changing the surface area of solid reactants affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
What are the key characteristics of a catalyst?
Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
0
What is an example of a biological catalyst?
Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
0
How do catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions?
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy.
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy. * An opportunity to investigate the catalytic effect of adding different metal salts to a reaction such as the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
0
What would the reaction profile for a reaction in the presence of a catalyst look like compared to the same reaction without a catalyst?
The reaction profile for a catalyst would be lower than the pathway for the uncatalysed reaction. The catalyst reaction would be labelled Ea.
A reaction profile for a catalysed reaction can be drawn in the following form: (energy level diagram with reduced Ea with catalyst)
0
Are catalysts included in the equation for a chemical reaction? Give a reason for your answer.
Catalysts are not included in the chemical equation for a reaction. This is because they are not used up in the chemical reaction.
Students should be able to identify catalysts in reactions from their effect on the rate of reaction and because they are not included in the chemical equation for the reaction.
0
What is the relationship between catalytic action and activation energy?
The relationship between catalytic action and activation energy is that the more effective the catalyst, the lower the activation energy is.
Students should be able to explain catalytic action in terms of activation energy.
0
What is the name of the catalyst used in the extraction of aluminium oxide?
The catalyst used in the extraction of aluminium oxide is cryolite.
Students do not need to know the names of catalysts other than those specified in the subject content.
0
How does the presence of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
The presence of a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
Students should be able to recall how the presence of a catalyst affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
What equipment would you need to investigate the rate of a chemical reaction?
Equipment you would need to investigate the rate of a chemical reaction: timer / stop watch measuring cylinder reactants balance gas syringe if product is a gas balance conical flask
Required practical 5 - rates of reaction (developing a hypothesis) (AT skills 1,3,5,6)
0
What is a reversible reaction?
A reversible reaction is one where the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants.
In some chemical reactions, the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants.
0
How can reversible reactions be represented?
Reversible reactions can be represented by: A B (reversible arrow) C D
Such reactions are called reversible reactions and are represented: A B (reversible arrow) C D
0
If the reversible reaction below was heated which direction would it react? Ammonium chloride (reversible arrow) ammonia hydrogen chloride
If the reversible reaction of ammonium chloride was heated it would decompose to produce ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
For example: ammonium chloride (heat - reversible arrow - cool) ammonia hydrogen chloride.
0
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, what is it in the opposite direction?
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction.
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction.
0
If 3500 KJ of energy is transferred in the forward reaction, how much energy would be transferred in the reverse reaction?
In a reversible reaction the same amount of energy is transferred in each case so 3500 KJ would be transferred in the reverse reaction.
In a reversible reaction the same amount of energy is transferred in each case. For example: hydrated copper sulfate [blue] (endothermic - reversible arrow - exothermic) anhydrous copper sulfate [white] water.
0
How can the direction of reversible reactions be changed?
The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions such as temperature and pressure of gases.
The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions.
0
What would happen if the temperature was increased for the reaction below: N2(g) 3H2(g) (reversible reaction) 2NH3(g) The forward reaction is exothermic.
If the temperature is increased, then the equilibrium will shift to the left (the endothermic direction), to remove the extra heat added. This is why only a moderately high temperature (380 - 450°C) is used in the Haber process.
If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is increased: - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an endothermic reaction - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an exothermic reaction.
0
What would happen if the temperature was decreased for the reaction below: N2(g) 3H2(g) (reversible reaction) 2NH3(g) The forward reaction is exothermic.
If the temperature is decreased, then the equilibrium will shift to the right (the exothermic direction), to produce additional heat.
If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is decreased: - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an endothermic reaction - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an exothermic reaction.
0
Does increasing the temperature of a reaction favor the endothermic or exothermic reaction?
Increasing the temperature always favours the endothermic reaction. Decreasing the temperature always favours the exothermic reaction
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in temperature on given reactions at equilibrium.
0
What does the term equilibrium mean?
When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.
When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.
0
How does increasing and decreasing the pressure for gaseous reactions at equilibrium?
For gaseous reactions at equilibrium: - an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction - a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction.
For gaseous reactions at equilibrium: ? an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction ? a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction.
0
When does changing the pressure of gaseous reactions not affect the equilibrium?
Changes in pressure will not affect the position of equilibrium, if the number of moles of gases on both sides of the equation are equal. Remember, liquids and solids contribute nothing to the volume of the equilibrium mixture.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of pressure changes on given reactions at equilibrium.
0
What does the relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on?
The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the reaction.
The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the reaction.
0
What happens when a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to the conditions?
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
0
What is Le Chatelier's principle used for?
The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can be predicted using Le Chatelier's Principle.
The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can be predicted using Le Chatelier's Principle.
0
How would changing the conditions of the equation below effect the equilibrium? A(g) 2B (g) (reversible arrow) C(g) D(g) a) increasing concentration of A b) increasing the pressure of the reactants c) increasing the temperature of the reaction (the forward reaction is exothermic)
Changing the conditions of the equation below would have the following effects on the equilibrium: A(g) 2B (g) (reversible arrow) C(g) D(g) a) equilibrium would shift to the right to reduce the amount of A particles b) equilibrium would shift to the right as there are fewer gas molecules in the products than in the reactants c) equilibrium would shift to the left as the reaction tries to cool itself down again
Students should be able to make qualitative predictions about the effect of changes on systems at equilibrium when given appropriate information.
0
What happens when the concentration of one of the reactions or products in an equilibrium system is changed?
If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed, the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed, the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
0
What happens when the concentration of a reactant is increased in an equilibrium system?
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be formed until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be formed until equilibrium is reached again.
0
What happens when the concentration of a reactant is decreased in an equilibrium system?
If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will react until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will react until equilibrium is reached again.
0
What would happen if the concentration of potassium chloride is increase? Cl2(g) H2O(l) (reversible arrow) Cl-(aq) ClO-(aq) 2H (aq)
If potassium chloride (a source of chloride ions) is added to the equilibrium mixture, the equilibrium will shift to the left, to remove the chloride ions added.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in concentration of a reactant or product on given reactions at equilibrium.
0
The Haber process is used to manufacture what substance?
The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers.
The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers.
0
Write a word equation for the Haber process?
Nitrogen Hydrogen <=> Ammonia
Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen reacts to form ammonia.
0
Why does some of the ammonia produced through the Haber process break back down into nitrogen and hydrogen?
Because the reaction is a reversible reaction.
The reaction is reversible so some of the ammonia produced breaks down into nitrogen and hydrogen: nitrogen hydrogen --> <-- ammonia
0
Explain how the commercially used conditions for the Haber process are related to the availability and cost of raw materials?
The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas - methane - with steam, or through the cracking of oil. This pathway is used as hydrocarbon compounds contain large percentages of hydrogen and are readily available. Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is used due to being rich in Nitrogen gas (79% nitrogen); nearly all the rest is oxygen. When hydrogen is burned in air, the oxygen combines with the hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind.
? explain how the commercially used conditions for the Haber process are related to the availability and cost of raw materials and energy supplies, control of equilibrium position and rate
0
How is any ammonia created through the Haber process separated from any unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen?
The remaining products are cooled. Ammonia has a much higher boiling point than either hydrogen or nitrogen, so liquefies and is removed. The remaining hydrogen and nitrogen gases are recycled.
On cooling, the ammonia liquefies and is removed. The remaining hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled.
0
Justify why the Haber process is carried out at 200 atmospheres?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium As there are fewer molecules of product than reactant, high pressure pushes equilibrium to favour the products and produce a higher yield of ammonia. The reason pressures higher than 200 atmospheres are not used - Substances under extremely high pressure can be dangerous. - Extremely expensive equipment must be used to keep reactants under sustained high pressures. - High amounts of energy are required to pressurise the gas.
MS 1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form. MS 1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
0
Justify the use of a high temperature in the Haber process?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium The forward reaction is exothermic, so in fact a higher temperature reduces the yield of ammonia. The reason that higher temperatures are used are to increase the rate of reaction, to make the process economically viable.
? apply the principles of dynamic equilibrium in Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium to the Haber process
0
Suggest why a catalyst is used in the Haber process?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium. The use of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium, but will speed up the rate at which it reaches equilibrium.
? explain the trade-off between rate of production and position of equilibrium
0
What are the raw materials required for the Haber process?
The raw materials for the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen
The raw materials for the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen
0
What is commonly used as the source of nitrogen in the Haber process? What is commonly used as the source of hydrogen in the Haber process?
Nitrogen gas used in the reaction is taken from the air by reacting the oxygen in the air with hydrogen, leaving nearly pure hydrogen gas. Hydrogen for the reaction is created by reacting natural gas (mostly methane) and steam.
Students should be able to recall a source for the nitrogen and a source for the hydrogen used in the Haber process
0
What conditions are used in the Haber process?
- Iron catalyst - High temperature (450C) - High pressure (200 atmospheres)
The purified gases are passed over a catalyst of iron at a high temperature (about 450?C) and a high pressure (about 200 atmospheres).
0
Where does crude oil come from?
Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.
Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.
0
Is crude oil a mixture of elements, compounds or both?
Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds called hydrocarbons.
Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds.
0
What is the definition of a hydrocarbon?
Hydrocarbons are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
Most of the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons, which are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
0
Does crude oil contain mostly alkanes or alkenes?
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called alkanes
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called alkanes. The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2
0
What are the names of the first four members of alkanes?
The first four members of the alkanes are: methane, ethane, propane and butane.
The first four members of the alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane.
0
What is the general formula for alkane molecules?
The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n 2.
Alkane molecules can be represented in the following forms: C2H6 or displayed formula.
0
Which of the following are examples of alkanes: C4H10, C2H4, C5H12?
C4H10 and C5H12 are both examples of alkanes.
Students should be able to recognise substances as alkanes given their formulae in these forms.
0
Name the alkane with: a) 1 carbon b) 2 carbons c) 3 carbons d) 4 carbons
a) Methane b) Ethane c) Propane d) Butane
Students do not need to know the names of specific alkanes other than methane, ethane, propane and butane.
0
How can crude oil be separated into fractions?
The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
0
Why is it useful to separate crude oil into fractions?
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
0
What type of fuels are produced from crude oil?
Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle, such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle, such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
0
What are three examples of useful materials produced by the petrochemical industry?
Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents.
Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents.
0
Why is it possible to produce such a vast array of products from crude oil?
The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar compounds.
The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar compounds.
0
How does fractional distillation separate crude oil into fractions?
Fractional distillation seperates crude oil first by vaporisating all compounds, a column of varying temperatures allows molecules with similar condensation points to be seperated. This is due to their carbon chain length
Students should be able to explain how fractional distillation works in terms of evaporation and condensation.
0
What factor of effects a hydrocarbons boiling point, viscosity and flammability?
The factor that effects a hydrocarbons boiling point, viscosity and flammability is the size of their molecule
Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of their molecules, including boiling point, viscosity and flammability. These properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels. (WS) Investigate the properties of different hydrocarbons.
0
How does boiling point, viscosity and flammability change with increasing molecular size?
As molecular size of hydrocarbons increases the boiling point increases, the viscosity increases and flammability decreases.
Students should be able to recall how boiling point, viscosity and flammability change with increasing molecular size.
0
What are the products of the complete combustion?
The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water.
The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water.
0
What is the balanced symbol equation for the complete combustion of methane (CH4)? (include state symbols in your answer)
CH4(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Students should be able to write balanced equations for the complete combustion of hydrocarbons with a given formula.
0
What happens to the carbon and hydrogen atoms during combustion reactions?
During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised.
During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised.
0
What is the useful outcome of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels?
The useful outcome of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels is that it releases energy.
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels releases energy.
0
Describe how the each of the following properties changes as the length of hydrocarbon chains within a fraction increases: a) Boiling point b) Flammability c) Viscosity
a) Boiling point increases as chain length increases. b) Flammability decreases as chain length increases. c) Viscosity increases as chain length increases.
Knowledge of trends in properties of hydrocarbons is limited to: ? boiling points, ? viscosity, ? flammability.
0
What is cracking?
Cracking is when hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller more useful molecules
Hydrocarbons can be broken down (cracked) to produce smaller, more useful molecules.
0
Describe the conditions required for catalytic cracking?
Hydrocarbons are heated to vaporise them and passed through a hot catalyst breaking down the molecules into smaller ones by thermal decomposition
Cracking can be done by various methods including catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
0
How is cracking done using steam?
Hydrocarbons are heated to vaporise them and mixed with steam and heated to very high temperatures breaking down the molecules into smaller ones by thermal decomposition
Students should be able to describe in general terms the conditions used for catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
0
What are the products of cracking?
The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of hydrocarbon called alkenes.
The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of hydrocarbon called alkenes.
0
What is the balanced equation for the cracking of this alkane? C15H32 --> 2C2H4 C3H6 _______
The balanced equation for the cracking is: C15H32 --> 2C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18
Students should be able to balance chemical equations as examples of cracking given the formulae of the reactants and products.
0
Why do do alkenes react with bromine water, but alkanes don't?
Alkenes react with bromine water because they have a C=C making them more reactive than alkanes (which don?t react with bromine water)
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and react with bromine water, which is used as a test for alkenes.
0
What is the chemical test and positive result for identifying alkenes?
The chemical test for identifying alkenes is to add bromine water, the positive result is that the bormine was decolourises.
Students should be able to recall the colour change when bromine water reacts with an alkene.
0
Why is cracking of hydrocarbons so important?
Cracking is important because there is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
There is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
0
How are alkenes used in chemical industry?
Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many other chemicals.
Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many other chemicals.
0
How does modern life depend on the uses of hydrocarbons?
Hydrocarbons are used to produce fuels for transport, generating electricity. They are the raw materials for producing plastics and other chemicals.
Students should be able to give examples to illustrate the usefulness of cracking. They should also be able to explain how modern life depends on the uses of hydrocarbons. (For Combined Science: Trilogy and Synergy students do not need to know the formulae or names of individual alkenes.)
0
What is the structure of an alkene like?
Alkenes are hydrocarbons (molecules made up of only hydrogen and carbon) with a double carbon-carbon bond.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double carbon-carbon bond.
0
What is the general formula for the homologous series of alkenes?
The general formula for the homologous series of alkenes is CnH2n.
The general formula for the homologous series of alkenes is CnH2n. Recognise substances that are alkenes from their names or from given formulae in these forms.
0
Why are alkene molecules called unsaturated molecules?
Alkene molecules are unsaturated because they contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
Alkene molecules are unsaturated because they contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
0
What are the conditions for the addition of water to alkenes?
The conditions for the additional of water to alkenes is to use steam passed over a catalyst of hot phosphoric acid. The resulting product is an alcohol.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of water alkenes
0
What are the conditions for the addition of halogens to alkenes?
If the alkene is a gas the halogen must also be a gas. If the alkene is a liquid then the halogen can be bubbled through as a gas.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of halogens to alkenes
0
What are the names of the first four members of the homologous series of alkenes?
The first four members of the homologous series of alkenes are ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
The first four members of the homologous series of alkenes are ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
0
What is the structural and display formula ethene?
The structural formula for ethene is C2H4, display formula shows C=C with 2 hydrogens bonded to each C by a single bond.
Alkene molecules can be represented in the following forms: C3H6 or displayed formula
0
What is the structural and display formula pentene?
The structural formula for ethene is C5H10, display formula shows one C=C anywhere with all other carbons single bonded C-C. There are 10 carbons single bonded, each carbon has four bonds in total.
Students do not need to know the names of individual alkenes other than ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
0
What is the functional group for alkenes?
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the functional group C=C.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the functional group C=C.
0
What determines the reactions of organic compounds?
It is the generality of reactions of functional groups that determine the reactions of organic compounds.
It is the generality of reactions of functional groups that determine the reactions of organic compounds.
0
How does the combustion of alkenes differ in oxygen and in air?
Alkenes react with oxygen in combustion reactions in the same way as other hydrocarbons, but they tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete combustion.
Alkenes react with oxygen in combustion reactions in the same way as other hydrocarbons, but they tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete combustion.
0
How do alkenes react with hydrogen, water and the halogens?
Alkenes react with hydrogen (in the presence of a nickel catalyst), water (phosphoric acid catalyst) and the halogens, by the addition of atoms across the carbon-carbon double bond so that the double bond becomes a single carbon-carbon bond.
Alkenes react with hydrogen, water and the halogens, by the addition of atoms across the carbon-carbon double bond so that the double bond becomes a single carbon-carbon bond.
0
What are the conditions required for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes?
The conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes is 300oC and over a heated catalyst of finely divided nickel
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
0
What are the conditions required for the addition of water to alkenes?
The conditions for the addition of water to alkenes is high temperature (for steam) and a phosphoric acid catalyst.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
0
What are the structures of the following products of alkene addition reactions: 1. dibromoethane 2. dichloroethane 3. ethanol 4. ethane
The structures of the following products of alkene addition reactions are: 1. dibromoethane = CH2BrCH2Br 2. dichloroethane = CH2ClCH2Cl 3. ethanol = C2H5OH 4. ethane = C2H6
Students should be able to draw fully displayed structural formulae of the first four members of the alkenes and the products of their addition reactions with hydrogen, water, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
0
What is the functional group for alochols?
Alcohols contain the functional group -OH.
Alcohols contain the functional group ?OH.
0
What are the names of the first four members of the homologous series of alcohols?
Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol are the first four members of a homologous series of alcohols.
Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol are the first four members of a homologous series of alcohols. Opportunities when investigating reactions of alcohols.
0
What are the names and structural formula for the first four members of the homologous series of alcohols?
The structural formula for the first four members of the homologous series of alochols are: methanol = CH3OH ethanol = CH3CH2OH propanol = CH3CH2CH2OH butanol = CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Alcohols can be represented in the following forms: CH3CH2OH or displayed formula
0
What happens when when alochols react with sodium?
When alcohols react with sodium they produce hydrogen gas
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with sodium
0
Name the following alcohols from their formula: a) C2H5OH b) C3H7OH c) C6H11OH
a) Ethanol b) Propanol c) Hexanol
Students should be able to recognise alcohols from their names from given formulae.
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What happens when when alochol burns in air?
When alcohols are burnt in air they combust to form water and carbon dioxide, releasing energy
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with burn in air
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What pH solutions are formed when alcohols are added to water?
When alcohols are added to water they form a neutral solution (OH- and XH )
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols are added to water
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What are the main uses of alcohols?
The main uses of alochols are fuels, producing alocholic drinks, cleaning products, making esters
Students should be able to recall the main uses of these alcohols.
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How can ethanol be produced from sugar?
Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions are fermented using yeast.
Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions are fermented using yeast.
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What are the conditions used during the fermentation of sugar to produce ethanol?
Fermintation of ethanol from sugar requires water, enzymes from yeast, temperature between 25-40 degress celcius and an absence of oxygen
Students should know the conditions used for fermentation of sugar using yeast.
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What happens when alcohols react with oxidising agents?
When alochols react with oxidising agents they form carboxylic acids
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with an oxidising agent
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What is the functional group for carboxylic acids?
Carboxylic acids have the functional group COOH.
Carboxylic acids have the functional group ?COOH.
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What are the names of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids?
The first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid
The first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid. (WS) Opportunies within investigation of the reactions of carboxylic acids.
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What is the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids?
the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are: 1. methanoic acid = HCOOH 2. ethanoic acid = CH2COOH 3. propanoic acid = C2H5COOH 4. butanoic acid = C3H7COOH
The structures of carboxylic acids can be represented in the following forms: CH3COOH or displayed formula
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What are the names of the following carboxylic acids? 1. HCOOH 2. CH2COOH 3. C2H5COOH 4. C3H7COOH
the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are: 1. methanoic acid = HCOOH 2. ethanoic acid = CH2COOH 3. propanoic acid = C2H5COOH 4. butanoic acid = C3H7COOH
Students should be able to recognise carboxylic acids from their names or from given formulae.
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(HT only) Why are carboxylic acids weak acids in terms of ionisation and pH?
Carboxylic acids are weak acids as they exist in an equlibrium so don't ever fully ionise (dissossiate)
(HT only) explain why carboxylic acids are weak acids in terms of ionisation and pH (see Strong and weak acids
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What happens when carboxylic acids react with carbonates?
When carboxylic acids react with carbonates they product carbon dioxide gas
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with carbonates
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What happens when carboxylic acids dissolve in water?
When carboxylic acids dissolve in water they produce acidic solutions
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids dissolve in water
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What happens when carboxylic acids react with alcohols?
When carboxylic acids react with alochols they produce an ester and water. An acid catalyst is needed.
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with alcohols.
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What is a pure substance?
A pure substance is a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance.
In chemistry, a pure substance is a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance.
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What is a formulation?
A formulation is a mixture that has been designed to have distinct properties and be used as a useful product.
A formulation is a mixture that has been designed as a useful product.
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What can be used to distinguish between pure substances and mixtures?
Use Melting point and boiling point data to distinguish between pure substances and mixtures?
Pure elements and compounds melt and boil at specific temperatures. Melting point and boiling point data can be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures.
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What are examples of formulations?
Formulations: fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods.
Formulations include fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods.
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What is a pure substance in everyday language?
A pure substance can mean a substance that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its natural state, eg pure milk.
In everyday language, a pure substance can mean a substance that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its natural state, eg pure milk.
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How are formulations made?
They are made by mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure that the product has the required properties.
Formulations are made by mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure that the product has the required properties.
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How would you test if carbon dioxide was present In a reaction?
Use an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).
The test for carbon dioxide uses an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).
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How would you test if Hydrogen was present In a reaction?
Use a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
The test for hydrogen uses a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
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How would you test if chlorine was present In a reaction?
When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.
The test for chlorine uses litmus paper. When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.
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How would you test if Oxygen was present In a reaction?
Use a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen
The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen
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What can Chromatography be used to separate?
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures such as inks and can give information to help identify the substances from which it is made.
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures and can give information to help identify substances.
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What are the names of the two phases involved in chromatography?
Stationary phase and mobile phase.
Chromatography involves a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
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What does seperation depend on?
Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases.
Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases
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How should the Rf value be expressed?
The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from origin) to the distance moved by the solvent
The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from origin) to the distance moved by the solvent can be expressed as its R value
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How is the Rf value calculated?
Rf = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
RT = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
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How do the Rf values of compounds change in different solvents?
Different compounds have different R values in different solvents.
Different compounds have different R values in different solvents,
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How can compounds be identified?
Rf values can be used to help identify the compounds.
Rf values can be used to help identify the compounds.
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How many spots are produced by a pure compound compared to a compound in a mixture?
The compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents.
The compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents.
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How can paper chromatography be used to separate mixtures?
A spot of each mixture is dropped onto the start line of the paper chromotography. The paper chromatogram is introduced to a solvent and left for seperation to take place.
Students should be able to explain how paper chromatography separates mixtures
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How can chromatographic methods can be used for distinguishing pure substances from impure substances?
The compounds in a mixture may separate into multiple spots depending on the solvent, but a pure substance will always produce a single spot in all solvents.
Students should be able to suggest how chromatographic methods can be used for distinguishing pure substances from impure substances
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How can chromatograms be used to determine R values?
The R value can be calculated and compared. RT = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
Students should be able to interpret chromatograms and determine R values from chromatograms
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How can elements and compounds be detected?
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid.
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid.
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What are the advantages of instrumental methods compared with the chemical tests?
Students should be able to state advantages of instrumental methods compared with the chemical tests in this specification.
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What are the different colours produced by some metal ions (cations)?
lithium compounds result in a crimson flame ? sodium compounds result in a yellow flame ? potassium compounds result in a lilac flame ? calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame ? copper compounds result in a green flame.
Flame tests can be used to identify some metal ions (cations). Lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium and copper compounds produce distinctive colours in flame tests: ? lithium compounds result in a crimson flame ? sodium compounds result in a yellow flame ? potassium compounds result in a lilac flame ? calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame ? copper compounds result in a green flame.
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When are some flame colours masked?
If a sample containing a mixture of ions
If a sample containing a mixture of ions is used some flame colours can be masked
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How do carbonates react with dilute acids?
Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater.
Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater.
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What do Halide ions produce when they react with silver nitrate solution?
Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
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What do Sulfate ions in solution produce when they react with barium chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid?
Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
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What solution can be used to identify some some metal ions (cations)?
Sodium hydroxide solution can be used to identify some metal ions (cations).
Sodium hydroxide solution can be used to identify some metal ions (cations).
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What do solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form?
They form white precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added but only the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added but only the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
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What happens when sodium hydroxide is added to Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions?
Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added. Copper(II) forms a blue precipitate, iron(II) a green precipitate and iron(III) a brown precipitate.
Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added. Copper(II) forms a blue precipitate, iron(II) a green precipitate and iron(III) a brown precipitate.
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Write a balanced equation for reactions that produce the insoluble hydroxides.
CuSo4 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 Na2SO4
Students should be able to write balanced equations for the reactions to produce the insoluble hydroxides.
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What is Flame emission spectroscopy used for?
Flame emission spectroscopy is an example of an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions in solutions.
Flame emission spectroscopy is an example of an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions in solutions.
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What can the output of a line spectrum be used for?
The sample is put into a flame and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope. The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution and measure their concentrations.
The sample is put into a flame and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope. The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution and measure their concentrations.
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What is the composition of the earths atmosphere?
about four-fifths (approximately 80 %) nitrogen ? about one-fifth (approximately 20 %) oxygen ? small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
Students to recall current composition of the earths atmosphere: about four-fifths (approximately 80 %) nitrogen, about one-fifth (approximately 20 %) oxygen and small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
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How has the Earths atmosphere evolved?
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth?s existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth?s atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
Students should be able to, given appropriate information, interpret evidence and evaluate different theories about the Earth's early atmosphere.
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How has the Earths atmosphere evolved?
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth?s existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth?s atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth's existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth's atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
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What types of gases did volcanoes produce?
Volcanoes produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane and ammonia.
Volcanoes also produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane and ammonia.
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What happened to the atmopshere when the oceans formed?
When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. No knowledge of other theories is required.
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What process has caused oxygen levels in our atmosphere to increase since its formation?
Photosynthesis, carried out by organisms such as algae and plants converted carbon dioxide into the oxygen now found in the atmosphere.
Algae and plants produced the oxygen that is now in the atmosphere by photosynthesis, which can be represented by the equation.
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When did Algae first produce oxygen?
Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon after this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion years plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually increased to a level that enabled animals to evolve.
Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon after this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion years plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually increased to a level that enabled animals to evolve.
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How did Algae and plants affect the atmosphere?
Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
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Apart from through the process of photosynthesis, what else has caused carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere to decrease since its formation?
Carbon dioxide levels also decreased due to some dissolving into the oceans, the formation of sedimentary rocks and the formation of fossil fuels.
Carbon dioxide was also decreased by the formation of sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels that contain carbon.
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How did the Earth's atmosphere change over time? Why did these changes happen?
Volcanic activity caused high levels of carbon dioxide, as the volancos died out the Earth's temperature cooled. The water vapour produced by volcanos condensed to form oceans. The carbon dioxide levels decreased as it dissolved into the oceans and formed part of the shells of marine animals.
Students should be able to describe the main changes in the atmosphere over time and some of the likely causes of these changes
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How and why did limestone, coal, crude oil and natural gas form?
Limestone, crude oil and natural gas all contain carbon. Limestone was formed by the calcium carbonate from sea organisms and their shells. Crude oil and natural gas form from the decomposition of living animals and plants.
Students should be able to describe and explain the formation of deposits of limestone, coal, crude oil and natural gas.
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How does the atmosphere help the Earth maintain stable surface temperatures?
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
Oreenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
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What are the long and short term impacts of the greenhouse effect?
Short term effects: Average surface temperature of earth increases. Long term effect: Rising sea levels, more extreme weather patterns.
Students should be able to describe the greenhouse effect in terms of the interaction of short and long wavelength radiation with matter.
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What types of human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
Any human activity that produces carbon dioxide and methane.
Some human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These include: - carbon dioxide - methane. Students should be able to recall two human activities that increase the amounts of each of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane.
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What do most scientists believe will happen to the Earth?s atmosphere?
Many scientists believe that human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth?s atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in global climate change.
Based on peer-reviewed evidence, many scientists believe that human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in global climate change.
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What difficulties can such complex systems as global climate change cause?
They lead to simplified models, speculation and opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of the evidence and which may be biased.
There are difficulties in such complex systems as global climate change. This leads to simplified models, speculation and opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of the evidence and which may be biased.
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What is the importance of peer reviewing results and of communicating results to a wide range of audiences.
Peer reviewing is important within the science community as it prevents bias and allows links to be made within and outside certain specialisms as well as to educate wider audiances.
Students should be able to recognise the importance of peer review of results and of communicating results to a wide range of audiences.
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What is a major cause of climate change?
An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of climate change.
An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of climate change. There are several potential effects of global climate changes.
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Describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
The potential effects of global climate change are rising sea levels, damage to ozone layer, increase earth temperature, polar ice caps melting, animals may become extinct, damage to coral reefs.
Students should be able to describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
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What are the scale, risk and environmental implications of global climate change.
Global scale with different affects in different regions. Risk to lost of home, crops, spread of disease, more extreme weather events such as hurricanes and flooding and species extinction.
Students should be able to discuss the scale, risk and environmental implications of global climate change.
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What is a carbon footprint?
The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service or event.
The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service or event.
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How can a carbon footprint be reduced?
The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane.
The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane.
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What actions are required to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane?
The main way to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide in the air is to burn less fossil fuels. Unfortunately, we depend on the burning of fossil fuels for heating, electricity generation and transport. If we are to burn less fossil fuels, we will need alternatives for these essential activities. Cattle farming produces a vast quantity of methane and therefore an effective way to reduce the emissions of methane would be o move away from a meat based diet towards a more plant based diet. This would also be a more effective use of land as the land used to produce cattle feed could be used to grow crops and vegetables.
Students should be able to describe actions to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane
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What human activity is the biggest contributor to an increase in atmospheric pollutants?
The combustion of fossil fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants.
The combustion of fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants.
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What do most fuels contain?
Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur.
Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur.
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Name the gases commonly released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned?
Carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the atmosphere.
The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned may include carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the atmosphere.
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How does burning fuels produce carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen?
Carbon monoxide is produced through incomplete combustion due to limited oxygen. Soot is produced from carbon that has not reacted during combustion. Sulfur dioxide is produced due to sulfur in the fuel reacting with oxygen in hot enginges. Nirtogen oxides are formed from nitrogen in the air reacting with oxygen.
Students should be able to describe how carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are produced by burning fuels.
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What are the impacts of emissions of carbon monoxide?
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and so is not easily detected.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and so is not easily detected.
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What environmental impact does the emission of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause?
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in humans and cause acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in humans and cause acid rain.
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What environmental impact do particulates cause?
Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.
Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.
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Describe and explain the problems caused by increased amounts of the following pollutants in the atmosphere: a) Carbon Dioxide b) Nitrogen Oxides c) Sulfur Dioxide d) Particulates
a) Greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. b) Dissolves in water droplets in clouds, it makes the rain more acidic than normal. This is called acid rain. c) Same as b) d) Very small pieces of solids, mainly carbon, that are released into the air during incomplete combustion. Contribute towards global dimming (the reduction of sunlight that makes it to the earths surface).
Students should be able to describe and explain the problems caused by increased amounts of these pollutants in the air.
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What do humans use the Earth's resources for?
Humans use the Earth's resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport.
Humans use the Earth's resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport.
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What do natural resources provide?
Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels.
Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels.
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What are finite resources used for?
Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials.
Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials.
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What role has Chemistry played in improving agricultural and industrial processes?
Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes toprovide new products and in sustainable development, which is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes to provide new products and in sustainable development, which is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
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What are the names of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products?
The natural products that are supplemented/replaced by agricultural or synthetic products are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Students should be able to state examples of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products.
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What is the difference between finite and renewable resources?
Finite resources are those which are limited. Renewable resources are those which can be replenished at the same rate that they are used up.
Students should be able to distinguish between finite and renewable resources given appropriate information.
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What are orders of magnitude?
A system of classification determined by size, typically in powers of ten.
Students should be able to use orders of magnitude to evaluate the significance of data.
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What different aspects of a products lifetime are assessed through a life cycle assessment?
Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products in each of these stages: - extracting and processing raw materials - manufacturing and packaging - use and operation during its lifetime - disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and distribution at each stage.
Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products in each of these stages: - extracting and processing raw materials - manufacturing and packaging - use and operation during its lifetime - disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and distribution at each stage.
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Why are life cycle assessment not a purely objective process?
Life cycle assessments are not a purely objective process because allocating numerical values to pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value judgments.
Use of water, resources, energy sources and production of some wastes can be fairly easily quantified. Allocating numerical values to pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value judgements, so LCA is not a purely objective process.
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Why is it important that life cycle assessments are completed by an unbiased impartial agency?
It is important that life cycle assessments are completed using an unbiased impartial agency to avoid misuse of data to reach pre-determined conclusions. e.g. to support a claim that a product is more environmentally friendly.
Selective or abbreviated LCAs can be devised to evaluate a product but these can be misused to reach pre-determined conclusions, eg in support of claims for advertising purposes.
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What are the life cycle assessments that would be conducted for plastic and paper carrier bags?
The life cycle assessments that would be conducted for plastic and paper bags are the raw materials, manufacturing processing, which lasts longer, disposal, transport, emissions and waste.
Students should be able to carry out simple comparative LCAs for shopping bags made from plastic and paper.
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What are the reasons behind the incentive Reduce, Reuse, Recycle?
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle is targeted to end users to reduce the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste and environmental impacts.
The reduction in use, reuse and recycling of materials by end users reduces the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste and environmental impacts.
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Where are the raw materials found to produce products such as ceramics, metals and plastics?
The raw materials we use to make ceramics, metals and plastics are found within the earths crust.
Metals, glass, building materials, clay ceramics and most plastics are produced from limited raw materials.
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Describe how the majority of energy is generated in order to process raw materials such as clay ceramics and metal ores?
Most energy used to process natural resources is generated from finite resources, such as fossil fuels.
Much of the energy for the processes comes from limited resources.
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Evaluate the environmental impacts of quarrying in order to obtain natural resources
The Environmental impacts of quarrying can be: Once usage is complete, often old quarries can become u - Destruction of natural habitats - Pollutants released from use of chemicals and burning fossil fuels in operation of quarry - Permanently disfigure the local environment and are often visible from long distances
Obtaining raw materials from the Earth by quarrying and mining causes environmental impacts.
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Give an example of a product that can be reused and a product that can be recycled.
Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use such as plastics and metals.
Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use.
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How can metals be recycled?
Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products.
Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products.
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What does the amount of separation for a product rely on? Give an example.
The amount of separation required for recycling depends on the material and the properties required of the final product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore.
The amount of separation required for recycling depends on the material and the properties required of the final product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore.
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What ways can reducing the use of limited resources be achieved?
Reducing the use of limited resources be achieved by producing less waste, reusing certain products, recycling certain products.
Students should be able to evaluate ways of reducing the use of limited resources, given appropriate information.
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What should the quality of drinking water be like?
The quality of drinking water should have low levels of dissolved salts and microbes.
Water of appropriate quality is essential for life. For humans, drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microbes.
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What must be done to the waste water produced by urban lifestyles and industrial processes before it can be released back into the environment?
Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of waste water that require treatment before being released into the environment.
Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of waste water that require treatment before being released into the environment.
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What is the name given to water that is safe to drink?
The name given to water that is safe to drink is potable water.
Water that is safe to drink is called potable water. Potable water is not pure water in the chemical sense because it contains dissolved substances.
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What will be required to be removed from a) agricultural waste water and b)industrial waste water?
Agricultural waste water require removal of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
Sewage and agricultural waste water require removal of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
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What factors decide which methods are used to produce potable water?
The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water and local conditions.
The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water and local conditions.
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What does sewage treatment include?
Sewage treatment includes: - screening and grit removal - sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent - anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge - aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
Sewage treatment includes: ? screening and grit removal ? sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent ? anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge ? aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
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What stages do most of the potable water in the UK produced?
The stages that most potable water is produced in the UK is: - choosing an appropriate source of fresh water - passing the water through filter beds - sterilising.
In the United Kingdom (UK), rain provides water with low levels of dissolved substances (fresh water) that collects in the ground and in lakes and rivers, and most potable water is produced by: - choosing an appropriate source of fresh water - passing the water through filter beds - sterilising.
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How is potable water obtained from a) waste ground and b) salt water?
Potable water can be obtained from waste ground through the three main stages of sedimentation, filtration and sterilizing. Potable water can be obtained from salt water through desalination by distillation or reverse osmosis.
Students should be able to comment on the relative ease of obtaining potable water from waste, ground and salt water.
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What are three types of sterilising agents used for potable water?
Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or ultraviolet light.
Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or ultraviolet light.
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What process can be used to make salt water / sea water potable when fresh water is limited?
If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or sea water may be required.
If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or sea water may be required.
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How is desalination completed? (give two methods)
Desalination can be done by distillation or by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
Desalination can be done by distillation or by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
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What is the main drawback of desalination processes?
Desalination processes require large amounts of energy.
These processes require large amounts of energy.
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What is the difference between potable and pure water?
Pure water only contains water particles with no other substances. Potable water is safe to drink but contains other soluble ions.
Students should be able to distinguish between potable water and pure water.
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What is the differences in the way that ground water and salty water is treated?
Salty water is treated by distillation or by reverse osmosis. Ground water is treated by - passing the water through filter beds and then sterilising using chlorine, ozone or UV light.
Students should be able to describe the differences in treatment of ground water and salty water.
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What are the reasons for each step of producing potable water from ground water?
Potable water is filtered to remove any fine particles in the water. It is then steralised to kill microbes.
Students should be able to give reasons for the steps used to produce potable water.
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How can analysis of the purity of water be carried out?
It is possible to analyse the purity of water by the boiling point. The closer the boiling point is to that of pure water, the more pure it is.
Students should be able to carry out analysis and purification of water samples from different sources, including pH, dissolved solids and distillation.
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What will happen to the Earth's supplies of metal ores if we continue to extract them at the rate we are now?
The Earth's resources of metal ores are limited. Eventually they will run out.
The Earth?s resources of metal ores are limited.
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What are new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores called?
Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
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What do these new methods of copper extraction avoid?
These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock.
These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock.
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How is phytomining carried out?
Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds.
Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds.
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How is bioleaching carried out?
Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds.
Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds.
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How can copper compounds be processed to obtain the metal.
The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
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What uses do we have for the ammonia produced through the Haber process?
Ammonia can be used to manufacture ammonium salts (used in fertilisers) and nitric acid.
Ammonia can be used to manufacture ammonium salts and nitric acid.
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Recall the names of the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with: a) nitric acid b) sulfuric acid c) phosphoric acid
a) Calcium nitrate b) Single superphosphate (a mixture of calcium sulfate and calcium phosphate) c) Triple superphosphate (calcium phosphate)
Students should be able to recall the names of the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid
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What process is used to extract rocks containing phosphate compounds from the earth?
Mining. - The phosphate containing rocks must be processed further prior to being used in fertilisers.
Potassium chloride, potassium sulfate and phosphate rock are obtained by mining, but phosphate rock cannot be used directly as a fertiliser
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How can rocks containing phosphate compounds be treated, in order to make soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers?
Phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers.
Phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers.
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NPK fertilisers all contain which 3 elements?
N = Nitrogen P = Phosphorus K = Potassium
Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are used as fertilisers to improve agricultural productivity. NPK fertilisers contain compounds of all three elements.
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Can NPK fertilisers be made using a variety of raw materials and different reactions?
Yes, Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be achieved using a variety of raw materials in several integrated processes
Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be achieved using a variety of raw materials in several integrated processes
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NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts. What is a formulation?
Any mixture or substance prepared according to a particular formula. NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts containing appropriate percentages of the elements (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium).
NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts containing appropriate percentages of the elements.
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How can corrosion be described?
Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment.
Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment.
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How can corrosion be prevented?
Corrosion can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, such as greasing, painting or electroplating.
Corrosion can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, such as greasing, painting or electroplating.
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What practical could be carried out to investigate the conditions needed for corrosion (rusting)?
A practical where a metal object e.g. a nail is kept in different conditions for example: 1. Only in air 2. Only in water 3. In air and water This would show that both air and water are needed for rusting to occur.
Students should be able to describe experiments and interpret results to show that both air and water are necessary for rusting.
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What conditions are needed for corrosion to occur?
Rusting is an example of corrosion. Both air and water are necessary for iron to rust.
Rusting is an example of corrosion. Both air and water are necessary for iron to rust.
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What does sacrificial protection mean?
Some coatings are reactive and contain a more reactive metal to provide sacrificial protection, eg zinc is used to galvanise iron.
Some coatings are reactive and contain a more reactive metal to provide sacrificial protection, eg zinc is used to galvanise iron.
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How is aluminium protected from further corrosion?
Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects the metal from further corrosion.
Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects the metal from further corrosion.
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Would a more or less reactive metal be used in sacrificial protection? Give a reason for your answer.
A more reactive metal is used as this would prevent the less reactive metal from rusting and become weakened.
Students should be able to explain sacrificial protection in terms of relative reactivity.
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Are most everyday metals pure or alloys?
Most metals in everyday use are alloys.
Most metals in everyday use are alloys.
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What are the alloys bronze and brass made up of?
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
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What is the percentage of gold in 24 carat and 18 carat gold used for jewellery?
The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats. 24 carat being 100 % (pure gold), and 18 carat being 75 % gold.
Gold used as jewellery is usually an alloy with silver, copper and zinc. The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats. 24 carat being 100 % (pure gold), and 18 carat being 75 % gold.
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What elements are present in the alloy steel?
Steels are alloys of iron that contain specific amounts of carbon and other metals.
Steels are alloys of iron that contain specific amounts of carbon and other metals.
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How are the physical properties of high carbon and low carbon steels different?
High carbon steel is strong but brittle. Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped.
High carbon steel is strong but brittle. Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped.
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What are the benefits of stainless steels that contain chromium and nickel?
Steels containing chromium and nickel (stainless steels) are hard and resistant to corrosion.
Steels containing chromium and nickel (stainless steels) are hard and resistant to corrosion.
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What are the uses of low density aluminium alloys?
The uses of low density alloys can be for building bike frames and aeroplanes.
Aluminium alloys are low density.
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What are the uses of high density steels?
High density steels are used for building materials. Low density steels are used
Students should be able to recall a use of each of the alloys specified.
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How is soda-glass made?
Soda glass is made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and limestone.
Most of the glass we use is soda-lime glass, made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and limestone.
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How is borosilicate glass made and what is the advantage of it over soda-glass?
Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than soda-lime glass.
Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than soda-lime glass.
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How are clay ceramics made?
Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace.
Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace.
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What is a composite and how are they made?
Most composites are made of two materials, a matrix or binder surrounding and binding together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is called the
Most composites are made of two materials, a matrix or binder surrounding and binding together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is called the reinforcement.
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What are three examples of composites?
Some examples of composites are: 1. carbon fibre 2. plywood 3. reinforced concrete 4. Ceramic
Students should be able to recall some examples of composites.
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What is a polymer?
A polymer is a large chain of monomers covalently bonded.
Students should be able to, given appropriate information explain how the properties of materials are related to their uses and select appropriate materials.
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What factors determine the type of polymers that are made?
The properties of polymers depend on what monomers they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced from ethene.
The properties of polymers depend on what monomers they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced from ethene.
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What is the difference between thermo softening and thermosetting polymers?
Thermosoftening polymers melt when they are heated. Thermosetting polymers do not melt when they are heated.
Thermosoftening polymers melt when they are heated. Thermosetting polymers do not melt when they are heated.
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How are high density and low density poly(ethene) are produced from ethene?
High and Low density poly(ethene) are made using different catalysts and different reaction conditions.
Students should be able to explain how low density and high density poly(ethene) are both produced from ethene.
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How are the structures of thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers different?
Thermosoftening polymers are no cross chains or branches between the polymer chains so slide easily past each other, this makes them change shape when heated. Thermosetting polymers have many cross chains or branches so are able to hold their sh
Students should be able to explain the difference between thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers in terms of their structures.
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What is a force?
A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object.
A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object.
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What is the difference between contact and non-contact forces?
All forces between objects are either: - contact forces - the objects are physically touching - non-contact forces - the objects are physically separated.
All forces between objects are either: - contact forces - the objects are physically touching - non-contact forces - the objects are physically separated.
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What examples are there of contact forces?
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension and normal contact force.
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension and normal contact force.
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What examples are there of non-contact forces?
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic force and magnetic force.
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic force and magnetic force.
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What is the interaction pair between a book being pushed across a table, where a force is produced on each object?
There is an interaction pair of friction forces between a book being pushed and a table. The book experiences a backwards force - this will tend to slow it down. The table experiences a forwards force - this will tend to move it forwards with the book.
Students should be able to describe the interaction between pairs of objects which produce a force on each object. The forces should be able to be represented as vectors.
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What is meant by the term ‘vector quantity’ in terms of forces?
A force is a vector quantity. A vector quantity is a value that has both magnitude (size) and direction.
Force is a vector quantity.
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What do all vector quantities have?
Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
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How is an arrow used to represent a vector quantity?
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow the direction of the vector quantity.
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow the direction of the vector quantity.
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How are scalar quantities different from vector quantities?
Scalar quantities different from vector quantities as scalar quantities have magnitude only.
Scalar quantities have magnitude only.
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How is resultant force calculated?
A resultant force is calculated when a number of forces acting on an object is be replaced by a single force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting together.
A number of forces acting on an object may be replaced by a single force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting together. This single force is called the resultant force.
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What is the resultant force for an aeroplane accelerating with a force of 2300 N when the reaction force of air resistance is 1900 N.
What is the resultant force for an aeroplane accelerating with a force of 2300 N when the reaction force of air resistance is 1900 N is 400 N.
Students should be able to calculate the resultant of two forces that act in a straight line.
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What forces are acting on a car that is speeding up?
The forces acting on a car that is speeding up are acceleration (thrust), air resistance (drag and friction), weight and reaction force.
Students should be able to describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated object or system.
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What is the resultant force for an object in each of the two examples below? 1) http://bit.ly/2EF4n0D 2) http://bit.ly/2BEpgGo
The resultant force for example 1 is the object's weight and reaction forces are balanced. Therefore the resultant force is zero and the object travels at the same height. However, it is accelerating (thrust) as the vector is longer than the air resistance (drag and friction). The resultant force for example 2 is weight as the reaction force and the weight are unbalanced, where the vector for weight is longer.
Students should be able to use free body diagrams to describe qualitatively examples where several forces lead to a resultant force on an object, including balanced forces when the resultant force is zero.
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What happens when two component forces at right angles act together?
When two component forces at right angles act together they have the same effect as the single force.
A single force can be resolved into two components acting at right angles to each other. The two component forces together have the same effect as the single force.
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What piece of equipment is used to measure weight?
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a newtonmeter).
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a newtonmeter).
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What is the relationship between the weight of an object and the mass of an object?
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional.
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional.
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What does gravitational field strength depend on?
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength at the point where the object is.
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength at the point where the object is.
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What is weight and what causes the force of gravity close to the Earth?
Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the Earth.
Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the Earth.
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What is the name of the single point of an object where the weight is considered to act?
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point referred to as the object's centre of mass.
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point referred to as the object's centre of mass.
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What equation is used to calculate weight? Include the SI units.
The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: weight = mass x gravitational field strength W = m g weight, W, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given.)
The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: weight = mass x gravitational field strength W = m g weight, W, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given.)
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What is happening when is work done on an object?
When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is done on the object.
When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is done on the object.
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When does a force do work on an object?
A force does work on an object when the force causes a displacement of the object.
A force does work on an object when the force causes a displacement of the object.
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What is one joule of work done equal to?
One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a displacement of one metre. 1 joule = 1 newton-metre
One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a displacement of one metre. 1 joule = 1 newton-metre
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How many joules are in 76 Nm?
1 joule = 1 newton-metre so 76 joules is equal to 76 Nm.
Students should be able to convert between newton-metres and joules
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What equation is used to calculate work done by a force on an object? Include SI units.
(MS) The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the equation: work done = force ? distance moved along the line of action of the force W = F s work done, W, in joules, J force, F, in newtons, N distance, s, in metres, m
(MS) The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the equation: work done = force ? distance moved along the line of action of the force W = F s work done, W, in joules, J force, F, in newtons, N distance, s, in metres, m
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What is the energy transfer that occurs when work is done?
Work done and energy transferred are measured in joules (J). The work done on an object can be calculated if the force and distance moved are known. A change in momentum happens when a force is applied to an object that is moving or is able to move.
Students should be able to describe the energy transfer involved when work is done.
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When work is done against the frictional forces acting on an object what happens to the temperature of the object?
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a rise in the temperature of the object.
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a rise in the temperature of the object.
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What forces are involved in stretching, bending or compressing an object?
Forces may change the shape of an object. An elastic object such as a spring stores elastic potential energy when stretched or squashed. The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied.
Students should be able to give examples of the forces involved in stretching, bending or compressing an object
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Why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching, bending or compressing), does more than one force have to be applied?
If one force only is applied to an object, for example a car, then the object will change speed or direction. If we want to change the shape of an object, we have to apply more than one force to it.
Students should be able to explain why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching, bending or compressing), more than one force has to be applied ? this is limited to stationary objects only
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What is the relationship between the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stores?
Provided the spring is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stored are equal.
Provided the spring is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stored are equal.
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What is the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic deformation caused by stretching forces?
Elastic deformation is where a material changes in shape at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. Inelastic deformation is caused a material is stretched beyond its limit of proportionality.
Students should be able to describe the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic deformation caused by stretching forces.
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What is the relationship between extension and force for an elastic object, such as a spring?
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
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What is the equation that links force, spring constant and extension? Include SI units.
(MS) force = spring constant ? extension F = k e force, F, in newtons, N spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m extension, e, in metres, m This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic object, where ?e? would be the compression of the object.
(MS) force = spring constant ? extension F = k e force, F, in newtons, N spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m extension, e, in metres, m This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic object, where ?e? would be the compression of the object.
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What is the difference between a linear and non-linear relationship between force and extension?
A linear relationship between force and extension is a directly proportional one, where a non-linear relationship shows that an elastic object has exceeded its limit of proportionality.
Students should be able to describe the difference between a linear and non-linear relationship between force and extension
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What equation is used to calculate elastic potential energy?
Elastic potential energy can be calculated for the work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up to the limit of proportionality) using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant s extension(squared) E = 0.5 k e(squared)
Students should be able to calculate work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up to the limit of proportionality) using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant s extension(squared) E = 0.5 k e(squared)
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What causes an object to rotate?
A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate.
A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate.
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What examples are there in which forces cause rotation?
Examples in which forces cause rotation include: merry-go round, bike tyres, throwing a ball.
Students should be able to describe examples in which forces cause rotation.
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What is the turning effect of a force called?
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.
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What equation is used to calculate the moment of a force? Include SI units.
(MS) The size of the moment is defined by the equation: moment of a force = force ? distance M = F d moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm force, F, in newtons, N distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force, in metres, m.
(MS) The size of the moment is defined by the equation: moment of a force = force ? distance M = F d moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm force, F, in newtons, N distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force, in metres, m.
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When the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot how are the forces described?
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot.
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot.
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What can be used to transmit the rotational effects of a force?
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to transmit the rotational effects of force
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to transmit the rotational effects of force
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How do levers and gears transmit the rotational effects of forces?
When someone uses a lever, they exert a force (the effort) around a pivot to move an object (the load). Levers rely on the principle of moments to act as 'force multipliers' - they reduce the effort needed to move the load by increasing the distance over which it is acting.
Students should be able to explain how levers and gears transmit the rotational effects of forces.
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What is distance a measure of?
How far an object moves in any direction.
Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve direction.
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Is speed a vector or a scalar quantity and why?
Speed is a scalar quantity as it only has a magnitude (size) and not a direction.
Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity.
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Is distance a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Distance is a scalar quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and not a direction.
Distance is a scalar quantity.
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Is the speed of a moving object normally constant?
No, when people walk, run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
The speed of a moving object is rarely constant. When people walk, run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
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What is displacement a meaure of?
Displacement is how far away an object is in a given direction.
Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, measured in a straight line from the start point to the finish point and the direction of that straight line.
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What are the typical speeds and factors that affect the speeds of people walking, running and cycling?
Walking ? 1.5 m/s Running ? 3 m/s Cycling ? 6 m/s. Age, terrain, fitness, and distance travelled.
The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on many factors including: age, terrain, fitness and distance travelled. Typical values may be taken as: walking ? 1.5 m/s running ? 3 m/s cycling ? 6 m/s.
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Is displacement a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Displacement is a vetor quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and a direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity.
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Is the speed of sound normally constant?
No, it varies as does the wind.
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of sound and the speed of the wind also vary.
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What is the typical speed of sound in air?
The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s
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What is the equation used to calculate the distance travelled and what are the units involved?
The equation used to calculate the distance travelled is: distance travelled = speed ? time s = v t distance, s, in metres, m speed, v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
(MS) For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a specific time can be calculated using the equation: distance travelled = speed ? time s = v t distance, s, in metres, m speed, v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
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What is the equation used to calculate the average speed for non-uniform motion?
Average speed = Total distance / total time taken
(MS) Students should be able to calculate average speed for non-uniform motion.
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What is velocity a measure of?
Velocity is a speed in a given direction.
The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction.
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How can the distance travelled by an object in a straight line be represented?
If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance?time graph.
If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance?time graph.
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Is velocity a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Velocity is a vetor quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and a direction.
Velocity is a vector quantity.
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How can the speed of an object be calculated from a distance-time graph?
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance?time graph. The gradient of a graph is change of y divided by change in x, in this case is change in distance divided by change in time.
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance?time graph.
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What are the vector - scalar pairs?
The vector - scalar pairs are displacement : distance velocity : speed
Students should be able to explain the vector?scalar distinction as it applies to displacement, distance, velocity and speed.
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(HT only) If an object is accelerating, how can the speed at a time be determined from a distance-time graph?
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance?time graph at that time.
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance?time graph at that time.
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(HT only) What is constant and what is changing during circular motion?
(HT only) speed is constant velocity is changing as direction is changing
HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively, with examples, that motion in a circle involves constant speed but changing velocity.
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What axis does time go on for a distance-time graph?
Time goes on the x-axis of a distance-time graph.
Students should be able to draw distance?time graphs from measurements and extract and interpret lines and slopes of distance?time graphs, translating information between graphical and numerical form.
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What is the equation used to calculate the average acceleration of an object and what are the units involved?
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation: acceleration = change in velocity time taken a = ? v t acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 change in velocity, ?v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation: acceleration = change in velocity time taken a = ? v t acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 change in velocity, ?v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
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What does decelerating mean?
Decelerating means slowing down.
An object that slows down is decelerating
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(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret the changing motion in terms of the forces acting.
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How can the acceleration of an object be calculated from a velocity-time graph?
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity?time graph. The gradient of a graph is change of y divided by change in x, in this case is change in velocity divided by change in time.
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity?time graph.
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What equation applies to uniform acceleration and what are the units involved?
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: final velocity2 ? initial velocity2 = 2 ? acceleration ? distance v2 ? u2 = 2 a s final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 distance, s, in metres, m"
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: final velocity 2 ? initial velocity 2 = 2 ? acceleration ? distance v2 ? u2 = 2 a s final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 distance, s, in metres, m
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What acceration does an object falling freely under gravity, near the Earth?s surface any object have?
Near the Earth?s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
Near the Earth?s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
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What axis does time go on for a velocity-time graph?
Time goes on the x-axis of a velocity-time graph.
Students should be able to draw velocity?time graphs from measurements and interpret lines and slopes to determine acceleration
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(HT only) How can the distance travelled be calculated from a velocity-time graph?
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity?time graph. Split the area into simple shapes and add up the areas.
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity?time graph
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(HT only)
(HT only)
(HT only) interpret enclosed areas in velocity?time graphs to determine distance travelled (or displacement)
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(HT only) For curved lines on a velocity-time graph, how can the area be measured?
(HT only) Counting squares that are more than half below the line.
(HT only) measure, when appropriate, the area under a velocity?time graph by counting squares.
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Why do objects falling through a fluid reach a terminal velocity?
An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its terminal velocity.
An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its terminal velocity.
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What is Newton's Third Law?
Newton's Third Law states that whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
Newton's Third Law: Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
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What would happen to an object if the resultant force acting upon it is zero and the object is stationary?
Newtons first law states that if the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is stationary, the object remains stationary.
Newton's First Law: If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is stationary, the object remains stationary. If the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
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What would happen to an object if the resultant force acting upon it is zero and the object is moving?
Newtons first law states that If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
Newton's First Law: If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
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How can Newton's Third Law be applied to examples of equilibrium?
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction therefore if the external forces are zero then every part of a system is zero, It will be in equilibrium
Students should be able to apply Newton's Third Law to examples of equilibrium situations.
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What is the equation that links resultant force, mass and acceleration?
F=ma force, in Newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
As an equation: resultant force = mass x acceleration F = m a force, F, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
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If the resistive forces balance the driving force what happens to the vehicle in terms of speed?
When the resistive forces balance the driving force the vehicle travels at a steady speed.
When a vehicle travels at a steady speed the resistive forces balance the driving force.
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When will the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object change?
The velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
The velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
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How can Newtons first law be applied to the motion of an object moving with uniform velocity and objects where the speed and/or direction changes?
Newtons first law explains that forces acting upon a body cause the motion of that body to change. When opposite forces become unbalanced the objects speed and/or direction will change. When forces are balanced and moving with uniform velocity the speed and/or direction will continue to remain the same.
Students should be able to apply Newton's First Law to explain the motion of objects moving with a uniform velocity and objects where the speed and/or direction changes.
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What is Newton's second law?
Newton's Second Law states the acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Newton's Second Law: The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
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What is the typical mass of a cyslist, car and lorry?
the mass of a small family car is 2000Kg, cyclist is 100Kg and a lorry 50000Kg. These could be used along with information about speed or acceleration.
Students should be able to estimate the speed, accelerations and forces involved in large accelerations for everyday road transport.
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what is the momentum equation and units?
Momentum is defined by the equation: momentum = mass ? velocity p=mv, momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s, mass, m, in kilograms, kg, velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
Momentum is defined by the equation: momentum = mass ? velocity p = m v momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s mass, m, in kilograms, kg velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
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two model cars collide reversing into one another), the blue car has a of mass 1.2Kg and the red car has a mass of 1.4 kg they collide at speeds of 0.5m/s (blue) and 0.2m/s (red) what is the velocity of the cars after the collision?
0.12m/s/s
Students should be able to complete calculations involving an event, such as the collision of two objects.
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The equations F = m × a and a = ( v - u ) / t combine to give what equation?
F = m Δ v / Δ t
When a force acts on an object that is moving, or able to move, a change in momentum occurs. The equations F = m × a and a = ( v − u ) / t combine to give the equation F = m Δ v / Δ t where mΔv = change in momentum ie force equals the rate of change of momentum.
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(HT only) What is the definition of inertial mass?
(HT only) inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain that inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.
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What is conservation of momentum?
Conservation of momentum is when in a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event.
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event. This is called conservation of momentum.
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In terms of rate of change of momentum, how do different examples of safety features work?
air bags, seat belts, gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and cushioned surfaces. They deform and they increase the amount of time the person takes to come to a stop. They provide a softer surface (like a pillow) and seatbelts protect people in two ways during a crash. The seatbelt prevents the person being thrown about in the car, possibly through the windscreen or hitting themselves on the steering wheel or other objects. The seatbelt also stretches a little, while restraining the person during a crash. The stretching increases the amount of time it takes the person to stop. to prevent the people hitting themselves on hard objects
Students should be able to explain safety features such as: air bags, seat belts, gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and cushioned surfaces for playgrounds with reference to the concept of rate of change of momentum.
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What is the symbol that indicates an approximate value or approximate answer?
~ is the symbol that indicates an approximate value
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol that indicates an approximate value or approximate answer ~
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Explain what happens to momentum in a collision?
The total momentum before the collision is the sum of both momentums.
Students should be able to use the concept of momentum as a model to describe and explain examples of momentum in an event, such as a collision
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What is inertial mass a measure of?
inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object
(HT only) Students should be able to explain that inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object
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(HT only) What is the definition of inertia?
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform motion.
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia.
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What are poor vehicle conditions limited to?
they are limited to brakes or tyres.
Poor condition of the vehicle is limited to the vehicle's brakes or tyres.
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What is the definition of stoppong distance?
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the vehicle travels during the driver?s reaction time (thinking distance) and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking distance).
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the vehicle travels during the driver's reaction time (thinking distance) and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking distance).
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What can the braking distance of a vehicle be affected by?
It can be affected by adverse road and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
The braking distance of a vehicle can be affected by adverse road and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
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What affect would an increased speed for a given breaking force have on stopping distance?
Stopping distance would be greater.
For a given braking force the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the stopping distance.
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What are adverse road conditions?
wet, icy, potholes and uneven surfaces are considered to be adverse road conditions.
Adverse road conditions include wet or icy conditions.
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Does every person have the same reaction time? Explain
No, reaction times vary from person to person.
Reaction times vary from person to person.
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What is the typical value range for the reaction time of a typical person?
The typical values range from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
Typical values range from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
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How can a driver's reaction time be affected?
A driver's reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and alcohol.
A driver's reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and alcohol.
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(Physics only) How does the distance for a vehicle to make an emergency stop vary over a range of speeds typical for that vehicle.
(Physics only) The faster the vehicle is going the greater the distance would be to come to a stop.
(Physics only) Students should be able to estimate how the distance for a vehicle to make an emergency stop varies over a range of speeds typical for that vehicle. (MS)
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What else could affect a driver's ability to react?
Distractions such as mobile phones or other people in the car.
Distractions may also affect a driver?s ability to react.
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Whatwould the estimate of the distance required for road vehicles to stop in an emergency varies over a range of speeds be; 30mph, 40mph and 60mph?
30mph - 23m 40mph - 36m 60mph -73m
Students should be able to estimate how the distance required for road vehicles to stop in an emergency varies over a range of typical speeds.
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(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students will be required to interpret graphs relating speed to stopping distance for a range of vehicles. (MS)
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What methods could be used to measure human reaction times?
How quickly a person can click on seeing a specified object, catching a ruler when it is dropped.
Students should be able to explain methods used to measure human reaction times and recall typical results
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When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, how does the work done by the forces between the brakes affect the kinetic energy and temperature of the brakes?
When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
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How could you interpret and evaluate the following results; person A had a reaction time of 3s, Person B had a reaction time of 4s and person C has a reaction time of 9s?
Person A and B had similar reaction times but person C was very much slower by 5-6s, they may have had a factor that affected their reaction time and therfore it may be useful to repeat to gain more results.
Students should be able to interpret and evaluate measurements from simple methods to measure the different reaction times of students
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what is the relationship between the speed of a vehicle and the braking force needed to stop the vehicle?
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
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How does increasing the braking force affect deceleration and brake heat?
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or loss of control.
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or loss of control.
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What are the dangers caused by large decelerations?
skidding, tyre blow-outs, loss of control of the vehicle, crashes.
Students should be able to explain the dangers caused by large decelerations
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(HT only) What is the force if the mass of a vehicle os 2000Kg and the acceleration is 12m/s/s?
(HT only) Force = 2000 x 12 = 24000N
Students should be able to (HT only) estimate the forces involved in the deceleration of road vehicles in typical situations on a public road.
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Name the two different types of waves.
The two types of waves are called transverse and longitudinal.
Waves may be either transverse or longitudinal.
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What are the ripples on a water surface examples of?
The ripples on a water surface are examples of transverse waves.
The ripples on a water surface are an example of a transverse wave
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What types of waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
The type of waves that show compression and rarefaction are called longitudinal waves.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
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What type of wave is a sound wave?
Sounds waves are examples of longitudinal waves.
Sound waves travelling through air are longitudinal.
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What is the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
In a transverse waves, the oscillations (vibrations) are at right angles to the direction of travel and energy transfer. In longitudinal waves, the oscillations are along the same direction as the direction of travel and energy transfer.
Students should be able to describe the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
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Do the waves in air or the wave in the water travel?
For both ripples on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that travels.
Students should be able to describe evidence that, for both ripples on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that travels.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of amplitude.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their amplitude.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of wavelength.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their wavelength.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of frequency.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their frequency.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of period?
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their period.
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What is meant by amplitude of wave.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
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What is meant by wavelength?
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the equivalent point on the adjacent
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the equivalent point on the adjacent wave.
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What is the frequency of a wave?
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second.
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What does period and frequency equal to?
Period = 1 / freqency T = 1 / f
Period = 1 / freqency T = 1 / f
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What is wave speed?
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave moves) through the medium.
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave moves) through the medium.
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What is the equation that links the frequency, wave speed and wavelength?
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength; v = f x λ
All waves obey the wave equation: wave speed = frequency x wavelength v = f x λ
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Identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
Students should be able to identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
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What method could be used to measure the speed of sound waves in air.
Over a long distance time how long it takes an observed sound to be heard. Use an oscilliscope.
Students should be able to describe a method to measure the speed of sound waves in air.
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What method would you use to work out the speed of ripples on a water surface?
speed = frequency x wavelength To work out frequency: Count how many waves pass a point over a 10 second period of time. Wavelength: measure the length of 10 waves.
Students should be able to describe a method to measure the speed of ripples on a water surface. (Req Prac)
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(Physics only) What affects a sound wave?
(Physics only) The velocity, frequency and wavelength.
(Physics only) Students should be able to show how changes in velocity, frequency and wavelength, in transmission of sound waves from one medium to another, are inter-related.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave has a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans?
Ultrasound waves
Ultrasound waves have a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans.
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(HT and Physics Only) What evidence did study of seismic waves provide?
(HT and Physics Only) Provided new evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which are not directly observable.
Students should be aware that the study of seismic waves provided new evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which are not directly observable.
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(Physics Only) What produces Seismic waves?
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes.
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave is a P wave?
P-waves are longitudinal, seismic waves.
P-waves are longitudinal, seismic waves.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave is a S wave?
S-waves are transverse, seismic waves.
S-waves are transverse, seismic waves.
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(Physics Only) What can S waves not travel through?
S-waves cannot travel through a liquid.
S-waves cannot travel through a liquid.
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(Physics Only) What do P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for?
P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for the structure and size of the Earth's core.
P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for the structure and size of the Earth?s core.
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(HT and Physics Only) How can objects in deep water be detected?
(HT and Physics Only) Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to detect objects in deep water and measure water depth.
Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to detect objects in deep water and measure water depth.
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(Physics only) How do sound waves travel?
Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the solid.
Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the solid.
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(Physics only) What causes the sensation of sound?
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to vibrate which causes the sensation of sound.
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to vibrate which causes the sensation of sound.
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(Physics only) What restricts the limits of human hearing?
The conversion of sound waves to vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency range.
The conversion of sound waves to vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency range. This restricts the limits of human hearing.
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(Physics only) What causes wave disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids?
Examples may include the effect of sound waves on the ear drum.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, processes which convert wave disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids. Examples may include the effect of sound waves on the ear drum
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(Physics only)
Students should be able to explain why such processes only work over a limited frequency range and the relevance of this to human hearing.
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(Physics only) What is the normal range of human hearing?
The range of normal human hearing is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Students should know that the range of normal human hearing is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
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(Physics Only) How is the light in the visible light spectrum different?
Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow band of wavelength and frequency.
Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow band of wavelength and frequency.
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(Physics Only)What types of waves are electromagnetic?
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber.
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(Physics Only) What type of spectrum do Electromagnetic waves form?
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum.
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(Physics Only) What type of speed to electromagnetic waves travel?
All types of electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or air.
All types of electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or air.
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(Physics Only) How are the electromagnetic waves grouped?
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in terms of their wavelength and their frequency.
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in terms of their wavelength and their frequency.
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What is the order of electromagnetic waves from biggest wavelength to shortest wavelength?
Going from long to short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
Going from long to short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
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(Physics Only) What type of electromagnetic waves do human eyes detect?
Human eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of electromagnetic waves.
Our eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of electromagnetic waves.
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List the practical applications of electromagnetic waves.
- radio waves - television and radio - microwaves - satellite communications, cooking food - infrared - electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras - visible light - fibre optic communications - ultraviolet - energy efficient lamps, sun tanning - X-rays and gamma rays - medical imaging and treatments.
Electromagnetic waves have many practical applications. For example: - radio waves - television and radio - microwaves - satellite communications, cooking food - infrared - electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras - visible light - fibre optic communications - ultraviolet - energy efficient lamps, sun tanning - X-rays and gamma rays - medical imaging and treatments.
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(HT only) How are radio waves produced?
(HT only) Radio waves are produced by oscillations in electrical circuits.
(HT only) Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits.
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How can electromagnetic waves be generated?
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in electromagnetic waves being generated
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in electromagnetic waves being generated or absorbed over a wide frequency range.
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What types of waves are hazardous on human body tissue.
X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human body tissue.
Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human body tissue.
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How are gamma rays generated?
Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus. They have no charge or mass.
Gamma rays originate from changes in the nucleus of an atom.
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What effects can Ultraviolet waves cause to the skin?
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of skin cancer.
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of skin cancer.
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What are three ways that show energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves?
Some examples of how electromagnetic waves transfer energy are: Radio waves - radios in communication Microwaves - ovens for heating food Infrared radiation - wireless remote controls Ultraviolet - Ultrasound scans Visible light - heat and light from light bulb X-Ray: energy passes through tissue but stopped by bone in X ray imaging Gamma: Energy used to kill pathogens during sterilisation of medical equipment
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
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What effects the outcome of being exposed to radiation?
The type of radiation and the size of the dose.
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose.
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What are the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation?
The risks of exposure to radiation can include radiation poisoning and cancer.
Students should be able to draw conclusions from given data about the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation.
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What type of electromagnetic waves are ionising?
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.
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(HT only) What type of current is produced when radiowaves are absorbed?
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating current.
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating current with the same frequency as the radio wave itself, so radio waves can themselves induce oscillations in an electrical circuit.
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(HT only) How can the wavelength of electromagnetic waves be varied?
(HT only) Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect electromagnetic waves
Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect electromagnetic waves in ways that vary with wavelength.
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What units is radiation measured in?
Radiation dose is measured in sieverts
Radiation dose (in sieverts) is a measure of the risk of harm resulting from an exposure of the body to the radiation.
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How many millisieverts are there in 1 sievert?
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv) Students will not be required to recall the unit of radiation dose.
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(HT only) Why is each type of electromagnetic wave suitable for practical application?
Each member of the electromagnetic wave is suitable for a practical application because it has a small range of frequency and wave length.
(HT only) Students should be able to give brief explanations why each type of electromagnetic wave is suitable for the practical application.
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(Physics only) Do only perfect black bodies (objects) emit radiation?
All bodies (objects) emit radiation.
Students should be able to explain that all bodies (objects) emit radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What is happening in terms of radiation and emission when a body is at a constant temperature?
(HT only)A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at the same rate as it is emitting radiation.
(HT only) A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at the same rate as it is emitting radiation.
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(Physics only) At what temperature do all bodies (objects) emit and absorb infrared radiation?
All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infrared radiation.
All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infrared radiation.
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(Physics only) What is the relationship between temperature and radiation of infrared radiation?
The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given time
The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given time.
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(Physics only) What colour object would be the best absorbed and emitter of radiation?
Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect black body (object) would be the best possible emitter.
Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect black body would be the best possible emitter.
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(Physics only) What factors affect the intensity and wavelength distribution of emissions from a body (object)?
The intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends on the temperature of the body.
Students should be able to explain that the intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends on the temperature of the body.
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(Physics only) What is a perfect black body (object)?
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it. A black body does not reflect or transmit any radiation.
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it. A black body does not reflect or transmit any radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What happens when the temperature of a body (object) increases?
(HT only)The temperature of a body increases when the body absorbs radiation faster than it emits radiation.
(HT only) The temperature of a body increases when the body absorbs radiation faster than it emits radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What factors can affect the temperature of the Earth?
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors including: the rates of absorption and emission of radiation, reflection of radiation into space.
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors including: the rates of absorption and emission of radiation, reflection of radiation into space.
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(HT only) (Physics only) Give an example of when the balance between incoming radiation absorbed and radiation emitted results in a constant temperature of a body (object)
(HT only) The constant temperature of the Earth.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how the temperature of a body is related to the balance between incoming radiation absorbed and radiation emitted, using everyday examples to illustrate this balance, and the example of the factors which determine the temperature of the Earth.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What affect to the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere would an increase in radiation absorbed have?
(HT only) If the amount of radiation absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere was to increase, the overall temperature of the Earth would also increase.
(HT only) Students should be able to use information, or draw/ interpret diagrams to show how radiation affects the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
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How are waves absorbed or transmitted?
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between two different materials.
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between two different materials.
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(Physics only) What is spectacular reflection?
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called specular reflection.
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called specular reflection.
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(Physics only) What is diffused reflection?
Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering: this is called diffuse reflection.
Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering: this is called diffuse reflection.
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Where are rays reflected from?
Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different materials.
Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different materials.
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What can the time taken for the reflections to reach a detector be used to determine?
The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how far away such a boundary is. This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging.
The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how far away such a boundary is. This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging.
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(Physics Only)How could a ray diagram to illustrate the reflection of a wave at a surface?
A ray diagram could be used to show a reflection using straight lines with arrows on to show the direction of the light wave. The light wave would bounce back at the same angle.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the reflection of a wave at a surface.
0
What happens to Ultrasound waves when they meet a boundary?
Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a boundary between two different media.
Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a boundary between two different media.
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(Physics Only) Explain how the differences in velocity, absorption and reflection between different types of wave in solids and liquids can be used both for detection and exploration of structures which are hidden from direct observation?
Students should be able to explain in qualitative terms, how the differences in velocity, absorption and reflection between different types of wave in solids and liquids can be used both for detection and exploration of structures which are hidden from direct observation.
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How should ray diagrams to illustrate the refraction, be constructed?
Use a ruler;Wave fronts at right angle to ray; Wave fronts closer together when the wave travels slower.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the refraction of a wave at the boundary between two different media.
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(HT only) What is the cause of refraction?
(HT only) Due to the difference in velocity of the waves in different substances, caused by the density of the particles.
Some effects, for example refraction, are due to the difference in velocity of the waves in different substances.
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(HT only) How can refraction be explained?
(HT only) Wave front diagrams can be used to explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.
Students should be able to use wave front diagrams to explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.
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(Physics Only)What are the effects of reflection, transmission and absorption of waves at material interfaces?
The effects at material interfaces for: reflection are that the wave bounces back at the same angle if the surface is smooth (specular reflection). A rough surface will produce diffused reflection with scattered reflection of the waves. Transmission: If the object is transparent and light can pass through at the same frequency the light waves are said to be transmitted. Absorption of electromagnetic waves will vary between different materials and how easily they will absorb infrared radiation.
Students should be able to describe the effects of reflection, transmission and absorption of waves at material interfaces.
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(Physics Only)What is the focal length?
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
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(Physics only) What is the equation that links image height, magnification and object height?
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the equation: magnification = image height / object height
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the equation: magnification = image height / object height
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(Physics only) What are the units for magnification?
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units.
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units.
0
(Physics only) What is the unit for image height?
Image height and object height should both be measured in either mm or cm.
Image height and object height should both be measured in either mm or cm.
0
(Physics Only) How can images by convex and concave lenses be represented?
Ray diagrams are used to show the formation of images by convex and concave lenses.
Ray diagrams are used to show the formation of images by convex and concave lenses.
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(Physics Only) How could you illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses?
Drawing ray diagrams to illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.
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(Physics Only) How are convex lenses represented in ray diagrams?
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by: <-->
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by: <-->
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(Physics Only) How are concave lenses represented in ray diagrams?
[In ray diagrams] a concave lens will be represented by: >--<
[In ray diagrams] a concave lens will be represented by: >--<
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(Physics Only) What type of images can be produced by convex lens?
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual.
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual.
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(Physics Only) What type of image can be produced by concave lens?
The image produced by a concave lens is always virtual.
The image produced by a concave lens is always virtual.
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(Physics Only) How does a lens form an image?
A lens forms an image by refracting light.
A lens forms an image by refracting light.
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(Physics Only) How is a convex lens used to focus an image?
In a convex lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus at the principal focus.
In a convex lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus at the principal focus.
0
(Physics only) How do colour filters work?
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour) and transmitting other wavelengths (and colour).
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour) and transmitting other wavelengths (and colour).
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(Physics only) How is the colour of an opaque object determined?
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths of light are more strongly reflected.
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths of light are more strongly reflected.
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(Physics only) What colour is observed when all wavelengths of light are reflected equally?
If all wavelengths are reflected equally the object appears white.
If all wavelengths are reflected equally the object appears white.
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(Physics only) What is the difference between a transparent and translucent object?
When waves are transmitted, the wave continues through the material. They are transparent because light is transmitted with very little absorption. Translucent materials transmit some light but are not completely clear.
Objects that transmit light are either transparent or translucent.
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(Physics only) What happens to wavelengths of light that are not reflected by an object?
Wavelengths that are not reflected are absorbed.
Wavelengths that are not reflected are absorbed.
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(Physics only) What colour is observed if all wavelengths of light are absorbed?
If all wavelengths are absorbed the objects appears black.
If all wavelengths are absorbed the objects appears black.
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(Physics only) In terms of light, why does an object appears to be red and translucent?
An object appears red when the red wavelength of light is reflected, all other wavelengths of light are absorbed. The object appears translucent because some of the light is transmitted.
Students should be able to explain how the colour of an object is related to the differential absorption, transmission and reflection of different wavelengths of light by the object.
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(Physics only) How can an orange light be produced using coloured filters?
An orange filter transmits orange light but absorbs all the other colours. If white light is shone on an orange filter, only the orange wavelengths will be observed by the human eye.
Students should be able to explain the effect of viewing objects through filters or the effect on light of passing through filters
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(Physics only) In terms of light, why does an object appear to be green and opaque?
An object appears green when the green wavelength of light is reflected, all other wavelengths of light are absorbed. The object appears opaque because none of the light is transmitted.
Students should be able to explain why an opaque object has a particular colour.
0
What are the poles of a magnet?
The poles of a magnet are the places where the magnetic forces are strongest.
Poles of a magnet
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What is the magnetic field?
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called the magnetic field.
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called the magnetic field.
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What force is always between a magnet and a magnetic material?
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one of attraction.
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one of attraction.
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What happens when two magnets are brought close together?
When two magnets are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
When two magnets are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
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What does the strength of the magnetic field depend on and where is it the strongest?
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
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What happens when two like poles are brought together?
Two like poles repel each other.
Two like poles repel each other.
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What affects the direction of the magnetic field?
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at that point.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at that point.
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What happens when two unlike poles are brought together?
Two unlike poles attract each other.
Two unlike poles attract each other.
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What direction does the magnetic field line go in?
The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north (seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the magnet.
The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north (seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the magnet.
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What type of force are attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles examples of?
Attraction and repulsion between two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
Attraction and repulsion between two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
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What causes a magnetic compass to follow the direction of the Earth's magnetic field?
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
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What is a permanent magnet?
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field.
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field.
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How can a plotting compass be used to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NT-KS9dscjw
Students should be able to describe how to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet using a compass.
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What is an induced magnet?
An induced magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field.
An induced magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field.
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What force does induced magnetism always cause?
Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction.
Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction.
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Why does a compass point North?
The core of the Earth is magnetic.
Students should be able to explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related to evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic.
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What happens to an induced magnet when it's removed from the magnetic field?
When removed from the magnetic field an induced magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
When removed from the magnetic field an induced magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
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How do the poles of the magnets interact?
Repulsion occurs between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets.
Students should be able to describe the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets
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What is the difference between permanent and induced magnets
Induced magnets can be switched on and off unlike permenant magnets.
Students should be able to describe the difference between permanent and induced magnets.
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What happens when a current flows through a conducting wire?
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced.
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the wire.
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What does the strength of the magnetic field depends on?
The current through the wire and the distance from the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the current through the wire and the distance from the wire.
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How does shaping a wire into a solenoid affect strength of the magnetic field?
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field created by a current through the
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field created by a current through the wire.
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What is the magnetic field like inside a solenoid?
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
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What is the shape of the magnetic field around a solenoid?
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of a bar magnet.
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How does adding an iron core affect the magnetic field?
Adding an iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid.
Adding an iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid.
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What is an electromagnet?
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core.
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core.
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Describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated
The magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated using iron fillings and a moving a compass around the magnets by plotting north.
Students should be able to describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated
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What does the magnetic field around a straight wire look like?
Students should be able to draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a current and for a solenoid (showing the direction of the field)
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How does a solenoid arrangement increase the magnetic effect of the current?
Students should be able to explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the magnetic effect of the current.
0
(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret diagrams of electromagnetic devices in order to explain how they work.
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(HT only) What is meant by the motor effect?
When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on each other. This is called the motor effect.
When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on each other. This is called the motor effect.
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What factors affect the size of the forces on the conductor?
The factors that affect the size of the force on the conductor are the current and the strength of the magnetic field.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the force on the conductor.
0
How is magnetic flux density calculated? Include SI units.
For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a current: force = magnetic flux density ? current ? length F = B I l force, F, in newtons, N magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) length, l, in metres, m
For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a current: force = magnetic flux density ? current ? length F = B I l force, F, in newtons, N magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) length, l, in metres, m
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What is the basis of an electric motor?
A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate. This is the basis of an electric motor.
A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate. This is the basis of an electric motor.
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How does the force on a conductor in a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor?
A simple electric motor can be built using a coil of wire that is free to rotate between two opposite magnetic poles. When an electric current flows through the coil, the coil experiences a force and moves. One side moves up and the other side moves down (based on Fleming's left hand rule).
Students should be able to explain how the force on a conductor in a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor.
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(Physics only) How do loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect?
(Physics only) Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert variations in current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in sound waves.
(Physics only) Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert variations in current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in sound waves.
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(Physics only) How do moving coil loudspeakers and headphones work?
(Physics only) Headphones and moving-coil loudspeakers work by transforming electrical signals into sound. They do this by using an electromagnet held inside a permanent magnet's field. The electric current around the amplifier constantly changes, and in changing it also changes the magnetic field around the electromagnet. This causes changing attraction and repulsion between the two magnets making the electromagnet move backwards and forwards. This movement causes sound waves.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil loudspeaker and headphones work.
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(Physics only) How are potential differences induced across the ends of conductors?
(Physics only) If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if there is a change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor.
(Physics only) If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if there is a change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor.
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(Physics only) What is the generator effect?
(Physics only) The generator effect occurs if a conductor is part of a complete circuit and therefore induces a current.
(Physics only) If the conductor is part of a complete circuit, a current is induced in the conductor. This is called the generator effect.
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(Physics only) What effect does an induced current have?
(Physics only) An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the original change, either the movement of the conductor or the change in magnetic field.
(Physics only) An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the original change, either the movement of the conductor or the change in magnetic field.
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(Physics only) What factors affect the size of the induced potential difference or induced current?
The factors that affect the size of the induced potential difference/induced current are the speed of the magnet or wire, the strength of the magnet, the number of turns or loops in the coil or the area of the coil.
(Physics only) Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the induced potential difference/induced current.
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(Physics only) What are the principles of the generator effect?
the principals of the generator effect are: 1. A moving wire moves between a magnetic field line 2. A potential difference is induced across the ends of the wire 3. An induced current passes along the wire
(Physics only) Students should be able to apply the principles of the generator effect in a given context.
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(Physics only) How does the generator effect generate A.C in an alternator? What factors can affect the current in an alternator?
An alternator uses the generator effect as its slip rings are connected to the ends of the coil to allow the coil to spin without winding the wire around itself. The brushes are conducting contacts that touch the slip rings and complete the circuit. The size of the induced current can be increase by increasing the number of turns on the coil, using more powerful magnets and turning the coil faster.
(Physics only) The generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a dynamo to generate dc.
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(Physics only) How does the generator effect generate D.C in an dynamo?
A dynamo is used to generate a direct current by moving the coil in a magnetic field. As the coil turns it cuts the magnetic field lines. This induces a potential difference between the end of the coil. This causes an induced current to pass through the coil and through the circuit the coil is a part of. The split ring commentator rotates with the coil and maintains a complete circuit with the external circuit. Each half turn the sides of the coil connect to the opposite side of the circuit so the direction of the induced potential difference doesn't change.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a dynamo to generate dc
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(Physics only) What would the graph showing potential difference generated in the coil against time look like?
The graph showing potential difference generated in the coil against time would show a transverse wave oscillating through the normal line.
(Physics only) should be able to draw/interpret graphs of potential difference generated in the coil against time.
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(Physics only) What do microphones convert into variations in current in electrical
(Physics only) Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical circuits.
(Physics only) Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical circuits.
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(Physics only) Explain how a moving-coil microphone works?
(Physics only) Sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. The vibrations make the coil move back and forth, causing a varying current to flow as the coil moves over the permanent magnet.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil microphone works.
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(Physics only) How does the equation linking the pds and number of turns in the two coils of a transformer link to the to the currents and the power transfer involved. Relate these to the advantages of power transmission at high potential difference.
At the end of the power station there is a step up transformer which increases the voltage but decreases the current therefore less energy is lost by heat. Before the current reaches homes and industry a step down transformer steps up the current and steps down the voltage.
(Physics only) Students should be able to apply the equation linking the pds and number of turns in the two coils of a transformer to the currents and the power transfer involved, and relate these to the advantages of power transmission at high potential differences.
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(Physics only) What is the basic structure of a transformer?
(Physics only) A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on an iron core.
(Physics only) A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on an iron core.
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(Physics only) Which metal is used for the core in transformers?
(Physics only) Iron is used [for a core] as it is easily magnetised.
(Physics only) Iron is used [for a core] as it is easily magnetised. Knowledge of laminations and eddy currents in the core is not required.
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(Physics only) The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer (Vp and Vs) depends upon the ratio of what?
The potential differences across primary and secondary coils of a transformer depend upon the ratio of number of turns on each primary and secondary coil (np and ns)
(Physics only) The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer Vp and Vs depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each coil, np and ns . EQUATION
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(Physics only) In a step-up transformer which has the greatest potential difference, primary (Vp) or secondary (Vs) coils?
In a step-up transformer Vs > Vp (Primary potential difference = Vp; Secondary potential difference = Vs)
(Physics only) In a step-up transformer Vs > Vp
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(Physics only) In a step-down transformer which has the greatest potential difference, primary (Vp) or secondary (Vs) coils?
In a step-down transformer Vp > Vs (Primary potential difference = Vp; Secondary potential difference = Vs)
(Physics only) In a step-down transformer Vs < Vp
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(Physics only) What would the relationship be between total power input and output in a transformer if it were 100% efficient?
If transformers were 100 % efficient, the electrical power output would BE EQUAL to the electrical power input.
(Physics only) If transformers were 100 % efficient, the electrical power output would equal the electrical power input.
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(Physics only) Vp x Ip = the ______ _______ (primary coil). power input Vs x Is = the _______ ______ (secondary coil)power output
Vp x Ip = the POWER INPUT(primary coil). Vs x Is = the POWER OUTPUT (secondary coil) (Ip = Current through primary coils Is = Current through secondary coils)
(Physics only) Vs ? Is = Vp ? Ip Where Vs ? Is is the power output (secondary coil) and Vp ? Ip is the power input (primary coil). power input and output, in watts, W
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(Physics only)Explain how the effect of an alternating current induces a current in another transformer.
An alternating current in a transformer creates a changing magnetic field. A changing magnetic field also induces a changing voltage in a coil. This is the basis of how a transformer works: The primary coil is connected to an AC supply An alternating current passes through a primary coil wrapped around a soft iron core The changing current produces a changing magnetic field This induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil This induces an alternating current (AC) in the circuit connected to the secondary coil
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the effect of an alternating current in one coil in inducing a current in another is used in transformers
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(Physics only) How does the ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each?
The ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
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(Physics only) What calculation liks power, current and voltage?
Power (W) = Current (A) x voltage (V)
(Physics only) Students should be able to calculate the current drawn from the input supply to provide a particular power output
0
(Physics only) What is contained within our solar system?
(Physics only) Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight planets and the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun.
(Physics only) Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight planets and the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun.
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(Physics only) What are natural satellites?
(Physics only) Natural satellites are the moons that orbit other planets.
(Physics only) Natural satellites, the moons that orbit planets, are also part of the solar system.
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(Physics only) What is our solar system part of?
(Physics only) Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy.
(Physics only) Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy.
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(Physics only) How are new elements formed?
(Physics only) In stars the nuclei of smaller elements fuse together to make larger, heavier elements.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how fusion processes lead to the formation of new elements.
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(Physics only) What is a star's life cycle determined by?
(Physics only) The life cycle is determined by the size of the star.
(Physics only) A star goes through a life cycle. The life cycle is determined by the size of the star.
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(Physics only) What was the sun formed from and how?
(Physics only) The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by gravitational attraction.
(Physics only) The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by gravitational attraction.
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(Physics only) How do the fusion reactions in a star begin?
(Physics only) At the beginning of a star's life cycle the dust and gas is drawn together by gravity to cause fusion reactions.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how, at the start of a star's life cycle, the dust and gas drawn together by gravity causes fusion reactions
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(Physics only) What do these fusion reactions lead to?
(Physics only) Fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the gravitational collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due to fusion energy.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the gravitational collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due to fusion energy.
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(Physics only) How are all the naturally occurring elements formed?
(Physics only) Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring elements.
(Physics only) Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring elements.
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(Physics only) Which elements are produced in a supernova?
(Physics only) Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova.
(Physics only) Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova.
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(Physics only) How are elements distributed around the universe?
(Physics only) The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the elements throughout the universe.
(Physics only) The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the elements throughout the universe.
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(Physics only) What allows the planets and satellites to maintain their circular orbits?
(Physics only) Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both natural and artificial) to maintain their circular orbits.
(Physics only) Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both natural and artificial) to maintain their circular orbits.
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(Physics only) (HT only) What effect does gravity have on circular orbits?
(Physics only) (HT only) Gravity can lead to a change in velocity but unchanged speed.
(Physics only) (HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how for circular orbits, the force of gravity can lead to changing velocity but unchanged speed
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(Physics only) (HT only) What must happen to the radius of an orbit if the speed increases?
(Physics only) (HT only) If the speed increases then the radius of the orbit decreases.
(Physics only) (HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how for a stable orbit, the radius must change if the speed changes.
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(Physics only) What happens to the red-shift of receding galaxies and why?
(Physics only) Astronomers have found that the further from us a star is, the more its light is red-shifted. This tells us that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it's moving away.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively the red-shift of light from galaxies that are receding
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(Physics only) What is red-shift?
(Physics only) Red-shift is the observed increase in a wavelength of light from most distant galaxies.
(Physics only) There is an observed increase in the wavelength of light from most distant galaxies. This effect is called red-shift.
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(Physics only) What makes red-shift increase?
(Physics only) The further away the galaxies, the faster they are moving and the bigger the observed increase in wavelength.
(Physics only) The further away the galaxies, the faster they are moving and the bigger the observed increase in wavelength.
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(Physics only) How does red-shift support the Big Bang theory?
(Physics only) The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the universe) is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.
(Physics only) The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the universe) is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.
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(Physics only) What does the Big Bang theory suggest?
(Physics only) The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot and dense.
(Physics only) The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot and dense.
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(Physics only) What have scientists observed of distant galaxies since 1998?
(Physics only) Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that distant galaxies are receding ever faster.
(Physics only) Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that distant galaxies are receding ever faster.
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(Physics only) What evidence is there of an expanding universe?
(Physics only) The fact that the speed of a galaxy changes as it gets further away supports the idea that the universe is expanding.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that the change of each galaxy's speed with distance is evidence of an expanding universe
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(Physics only) How does Red-shift provide evidence for the Big Bang model?
(Physics only) Astronomers have found that the further from us a star is the more its light is red shifted. This tells us that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and that the further a galaxy is the faster it is moving away. This is evidence for a generally expanding universe. It suggests that everything is moving away from everything else.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how red-shift provides evidence for the Big Bang model
0
(Physics only) What evidence is there for the Big Bang theory?
(Physics only) There are two key pieces of evidence for Big Bang theory. These are red shift and the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation. Red shift shows us that galaxies are all moving away from us and cosmic microwave radiation shows that there are microwaves coming from every direction in space. Big Bang theory says this is energy created at the beginning of the universe, just after the Big Bang, and that has been travelling through space ever since.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how scientists are able to use observations to arrive at theories such as the Big Bang theory
0
(Physics only) Do we know everything about the universe? If not give examples of things we don't yet understand.
(Physics only) No, there is still much about the universe that is not understood, for example dark mass and dark energy.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that there is still much about the universe that is not understood, for example dark mass and dark energy.
0
How many processes are there common to living things?
There are seven processes that are common to living things.
There are seven processes that are common to living things.
0
What are these seven life processes?
The seven life processes are movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
The seven life processes are movement, respiration, sensitivity, growth, reproduction, excretion and nutrition.
0
What are all living things made of?
Cells are the fundamental unit of living organisms.
Cells as are the fundamental unit of living organisms.
0
What are the levels of organisation in an organism?
Cells => Tissues => Organs => Organ Systems => Organisms
Organisms => Tissues => Organs => Organ Systems => Cells
Cells => Tissues => Organ Systems => Organs => Organisms
Organisms => Organs => Organ Systems => Tissues => Cells
Cells => Tissues => Organs => Organ Systems => Organisms
1
What are biological cells?
Cells are the repeated units that living things are made up of.
Cells are the repeated units that make up a battery.
Cells are one of units that living things are made up of.
Cells are the one off units that make up a battery.
Cells are repeated units
0
What are tissues made up of?
Tissues are one type of cell working together.
Tissues are more than one type of cell working together.
Tissues are one type of organ working together.
Tissues are more than one type of organ working together.
Tissues are one type of cell working together.
1
What are Organs made up of?
Organs are made of different tissues working together.
Organs are made of different organ systems working together.
Organs are made of different organisms working together.
Organs are made of different organelles working together.
Organs are made of different tissues working together.
0
What are Organ Systems made up of?
Organ Systems are different organs working together.
Organ Systems are different tissue working together.
Organ Systems are made of different organisms working together.
Organ Systems are made of different organelles working together.
Organ Systems are different organs working together.
1
What are organisms made up of?
Organisms are made up of Organs systems.
Organisms are made up of organelles.
Organisms are made up of organs.
Organisms are made up of tissue.
Organisms are living things, in which different organ systems work together.
0
What are organelles?
Organelles are the small structures inside cells.
Organelles are a group of like cells.
Organelles are a group of tissue.
Organelles are a group of organ systems.
Cells have smaller structures called organelles in them.
1
What is the function of the cell wall?
The function of the cell wall is to strengthen the cell.
The function of the cell wall is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of the cell wall is to
The function of the cell wall is to
The function of the cell wall is to strengthen the cell.
0
What is the function of the cell membrane?
The function of the cell membrane is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of the cell membrane is to strengthen the cell.
The function of the cell membrane is to be a place for chemical reactions to take place.
The function of the cell membrane is to control the cell.
The function of the cell membrane is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
1
What is the function of the cytoplasm?
The function of cytoplasm is to be a place for chemical reactions to take place.
The function of cytoplasm is to absorb light energy to make food.
The function of cytoplasm is to be a store of cell sap.
The function of cytoplasm is to control the cell.
The function of cytoplasm is to be a place for chemical reactions to take place.
0
What is the function of the nucleus?
The function of nucleus is to control the cell.
The function of nucleus is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of nucleus is to absorb light energy to make food.
The function of nucleus is to be a store of cell sap.
The function of nucleus is to control the cell.
0
What is the function of the permanent vacuole?
The function of permanent vacuole is to be a store of cell sap.
The function of permanent vacuole is to be a place for chemical reactions to take place.
The function of permanent vacuole is to do protein synthesis.
The function of permanent vacuole is to strengthen the cell.
The function of permanent vacuole is to be a store of cell sap.
1
What is the function of the chloroplasts?
The function of the chloroplasts is to absorb light energy to make food.
The function of the chloroplasts is to do protein synthesis
The function of the chloroplasts is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of the chloroplasts is to release energy through respiration.
The function of the chloroplasts is to absorb light energy to make food
0
What is the function of the mitochondria?
The function of mitochondria is to release energy through respiration.
The function of mitochondria is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of mitochondria is to do protein synthesis
The function of mitochondria is to absorb light energy to make food.
The function of mitochondria is to release energy through respiration.
1
What is the function of the ribosome?
The function of the ribosome is to do protein synthesis.
The function of the ribosome is to control the passage of substances in and out of the cell.
The function of the ribosome is to absorb light energy to make food.
The function of the ribosome is to control the cell.
The function of the ribosome is to do protein synthesis (making).
1
Compare an animal and plant cells.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell wall; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & chloroplasts. Only plant cells have: cell membrane; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; chloroplasts & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes mitochondria .
Plant and animal cells both have: cell wall; cytoplasm; nucleus; chloroplasts & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell membrane; permanent vacuole and sometimes mitochondria.
the similarities and differences between plant and animal cell: - Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & ribosomes. - Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
0
How are you able to tell the difference between an animal and plant cell?
Students to sort diagrams (or photos for higher ability) of animal and plant cells based on their characteristics. - Root hair cell - Red blood cell - Elodea cell - Ciliated cell
0
Give 3 examples of specialised plant or animal cells. How are they different to other cells and how does this help the cells complete their specialist function?
That cells have special characteristics, different organelles and shape, in order to fulfill their function.
That cells have special characteristics, different organelles and shape, in order to fulfill their function.
0
What is the function of a root hair cell and how is the cell specialised to do this?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients. RHC have no chloroplasts as light does not get to them.
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients. RHC have no chloroplasts as light does not get to them.
0
What adaptations do red blood cells have in order to efficiently carry oxygen around the body?
Red blood cells have a rounded shape to allow it to flow smoothly. Is red due to the iron compound used to carry oxygen. RBC have no nucleus and a biconcave cross section to increase oxygen capacity.
Red blood cells have a rounded shape to allow it to flow smoothly. Is red due to the iron compound used to carry oxygen. RBC have no nucleus and a biconcave cross section to increase oxygen capacity.
0
What special adaptation do Elodea have? Why do they have this?
Elodea cell have lots of chloroplasts to capture light.
Elodea cell have lots of chloroplasts to capture light.
0
Why do ciliated cells have hairs?
Ciliated cells have hairs on them to move substances around.
0
Why, when focussing a microscope, is it important to have the stage close to the objective lens at the start and wind the stage down as you focus?
To focus a (light) microscope, put your head to the side and raise the stage until it is as close to the objective lens as possible without making contact. Then looking through the microscope, wind the stage down using the coarse focusing dial. The fine focus using the smaller dial.
To focus a (light) microscope, put your head to the side and raise the stage until it is as close to the objective lens as possible without making contact. Then looking through the microscope, wind the stage down using the coarse focusing knob. The fine focus using the smaller knob.
0
How should biological drawings be made?
Biological diagrams are line drawings of 'the generalised specimen'.
Biological diagrams are line drawings of 'the generalised specimen'.
0
What organelles can be seen under a light microscope?
Students to record cell structure as a labelled biological diagram as seen using a light microscope.
Students to record cell structure as a labelled biological diagram as seen using a light microscope.
0
What does unicellular mean?
Unicellular organisms are living things made up of only a one cell.
Unicellular organisms are living things made up of many cells.
Unicellular organisms are living things made up of only a one organ.
Unicellular organisms are living things made up of many organs.
Unicellular organisms are living things made up of only a one cell.
1
What does multicellular mean?
Multicellular organisms are living things made up of many cells.
Multicellular organisms are living things made up of only a one cell.
Multicellular organisms are living things made up of many organs.
Multicellular organisms are living things made up of only a one organ.
Multicellular organisms are living things made up of many cells.
0
Name 3 types of unicellular life.
Bacteria, Protozoa and Yeast are examples of unicellular organisms.
Bacteria, Red blood cells and Yeast are examples of unicellular organisms.
Red blood cells, Protozoa and Yeast are examples of unicellular organisms.
Bacteria, Protozoa and Red Blood Cells are examples of unicellular organisms.
Bacteria, Protozoa and Yeast (unicellular fungi) are examples of unicellular organisms.
1
What are the parts of a bacterial cell?
A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall; the genes are not in a distinct nucleus. Some Bacteria may have Flagella (tails) to swim.
A bacterial cell consists of cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall; the genes are not in a distinct nucleus. Some Bacteria may have Flagella (tails) to swim.
0
What organelles do yeast cells have?
Yeast cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
Yeast cells have a nucleus, cytoplasm and a membrane surrounded by a cell wall.
0
What are pseudopodia?
Protoza have pseudopodia (“false feet”) to move about and to surround food and take it inside the cell. Protoza have temporary vacuoles containing waste.
Protoza have pseudopodia (“false feet”) to move about and to surround food and take it inside the cell. Protoza have temporary vacuoles containing waste.
0
Can you see unicellular or multicellular organisms with the naked eye?
You can see multicelluar organisms with the naked eye. Most unicellular organisms are too small to see without a microscope.
Students to sort prepared slides or diagrams of unicellular organisms based on their characteristics.
0
How are the bones arranged in your head, torso, arms and legs?
The structure of the human skeleton: Legs: - The upper arm has one bone called the Femur. - The lower arm has two bones called the Tibia and the Fibula. The Tibia is the larger bone. - The Femur, Tibia and Fibula are connected by the Knee joint, behind the Patella (knee cap). Torso: - The Femur is connected to the Pelvis by the Hip joint. - The Spine is made up of Vertebrae connects the Pelvis to Skull. - Attached to the spine is the Rib cage and the Clavicle. Arms: - The upper arm has one bone called the Humerus. - The lower arm has two bones called the Radius and the Ulna. The Radius is on the side of the thumb. - The Humerus is attached to the Clavicle at the Shoulder joint. - Humerus, Radius and Ulna are connected by the Elbow joint.
The structure of the human skeleton: Legs: - The upper leg has one bone called the Femur. - The lower leg has two bones called the Tibia and the Fibula. The Tibia is the larger bone. - The Femur, Tibia and Fibula are connected by the Knee joint, behind the Patella (knee cap). Torso: - The Femur is connected to the Pelvis by the Hip joint. - The Spine is made up of Vertebrae connects the Pelvis to Skull. - Attached to the spine is the Rib cage and the Clavicle. Arms: - The upper arm has one bone called the Humerus. - The lower arm has two bones called the Radius and the Ulna. The Radius is on the side of the thumb. - The Humerus is attached to the Clavicle at the Shoulder joint. - Humerus, Radius and Ulna are connected by the Elbow joint.
0
What are the functions of a skeleton?
The functions of the human skeleton are: - support, - protection, - movement and - making blood cells
The functions of the human skeleton are: - support, - protection, - movement and - making blood cells
0
What does the bone marrow do?
Within bones there is bone marrow which produces new blood cells.
Within bones there is bone marrow which produces new blood cells.
0
How is the movement different in a hinge, pivot, ball and socket and fixed joint?
There are different types of joint in the skeleton, allowing different types of movement. - Hinge: Back and forth without twisting. - Pivot: Twisting. - Ball and socket: Rotation in all directions. - Fixed: No movement
There are different types of joint in the skeleton, allowing different types of movement. - Hinge: Back and forth without twisting. - Pivot: Twisting. - Ball and socket: Rotation in all directions. - Fixed: No movement
0
Give an example of a hinge, pivot, ball and socket and fixed joint.
The Elbow and Knee are hinge joints. The Neck, part of the spine, is a pivot joint. The Shoulder and Hip are ball and socket joints. The Skull has fixed joints in it.
The Elbow and Knee are hinge joints. The Neck, part of the spine, is a pivot joint. The Shoulder and Hip are ball and socket joints. The Skull has fixed joints in it.
0
Give examples of antagonistic muscles in the arms and legs.
The muscle on top of the upper arm is called the Bicep. The muscle on underside of the upper arm is called the Tricep. The muscle on front of the upper leg is called the Quadriceps. The muscles on back of the upper leg are called the Hamstrings. The muscles between the ribs are called intercostal muscles.
The muscle on top of the upper arm is called the Bicep. The muscle on underside of the upper arm is called the Tricep. The muscle on front of the upper leg is called the Quadriceps. The muscles on back of the upper leg are called the Hamstrings. The muscles between the ribs are called intercostal muscles.
0
How are the bones at a joint held together?
Joints are held together (bone to bone) by Ligaments. Muscles are connected to bones by Tendons.
Joints are held together (bone to bone) by Ligaments. Muscles are connected to bones by Tendons.
0
What is the difference between a ligament and a tendon?
Ligaments are elastic (stretchy) to allow movement. Tendons are not elastic to all muscles to exert a force on the bones.
Ligaments are elastic (stretchy) to allow movement. Tendons are not elastic to all muscles to exert a force on the bones.
0
What do muscles do to apply a force and is it a pulling or pushing force?
Muscles can only contract (pull) exerting a force and relax applying no force. Muscles can not
Muscles can only contract (pull) exerting a force and relax applying no force. Muscles can not
0
When one muscle in an antagonistic pair is contracted, what will the other muscle do?
To raise the lower arm, the Bicep must contract while the triceps relaxes and vice versa.
To raise the lower arm, the Bicep must contract while the triceps relaxes and vice versa.
0
What part of the plant is involved in sexual reproduction?
Flowers are the genitals of plants
0
What is the male part of the flower called?
Flower structure - The Stamen is the male part of a flower. - The Stamen consists of an Anther and Filament. - The Anther contains pollen, the male gamete cell. -The Filament attaches the stamen to the anther. - The Carpel is the female part of a flower. - The Carpel consists of a Stigma, Style and Ovary. - The style is the stalk in the centre of the flower. - The Stigma is on the end of the style. - The Ovary contains the Ovule, the female gamete cell. - The flower also has Petals (to attract insects) and Sepals (green leaves which contain flower before budding).
Flower structure - The Stamen is the male part of a flower. - The Stamen consists of an Anther and Filament. - The Anther contains pollen, the male gamete cell. - The Carpel is the female part of a flower. - The Carpel consists of a Stigma, Style and Ovary. - The Stigma is on the end of the style. - The Ovary contains the Ovule, the female gamete cell. - The flower also has Petals and Sepals.
0
How can an insect pollinator transfer pollen from one flower to another?
insect pollination: - Insects attracted to petals and nectar. - Insect enters flower and pollen is transferred from Anther to Insect. - Insect is attracted to another flower. - Pollen from Insect is transferred to Stigma. - Pollen cell grows a pollen tube down the Style to the Ovary.
insect pollination: - Insects attracted to petals and nectar. - Insect enters flower and pollen is transferred from Anther to Insect. - Insect is attracted to another flower. - Pollen from Insect is transferred to Stigma. - Pollen cell grows a pollen tube down the Style to the Ovary.
0
What happens to cause fertilisation in a flower?
Fertilisation occurs when the Pollen nucleus fuses with the Ovule. The fertilised Ovule forms the seed. The Ovary forms the Fruit.
Fertilisation occurs when the Pollen nucleus fuses with the Ovule. The fertilised Ovule forms the seed. The Ovary forms the Fruit.
0
What is the role of a pollen cell?
The function of Pollen cells are to transfer genetic material (DNA) from one plant to another.
The function of Pollen cells are to transfer genetic material (DNA) from one plant to another.
0
How are pollen cells adapted - Give at least 2 ways.
Pollen cells are adapted to their function by: - being small (microscopic) - having a tough outer coating - can have spikes or hooks
Pollen cells are adapted to their function by: - being small (microscopic) - having a tough outer coating - can have spikes or hooks
0
Why does pollen have a tough outer coating? Why do some pollens have spikes or hooks on them?
Pollen being small allows it to be transported easily by insects (and wind next lesson) Pollen having a tough outer coating allows the cell to survive in the environment away from the plant. Pollen have spikes or hooks makes it more likely to stick to insects.
Pollen being small allows it to be transported easily by insects (and wind next lesson) Pollen having a tough outer coating allows the cell to survive in the environment away from the plant. Pollen have spikes or hooks makes it more likely to stick to insects.
0
What different methods can be used to transfer pollen?
Some plants use the Wind to pollinate other plants.
Some plants use the Wind to pollinate other plants.
0
Why is it important for plants to spread seeds far?
The most successful plants are wide spread due to their dispersal mechanisms.
The most successful plants are wide spread due to their seed dispersal mechanisms.
0
What are the different ways seeds can be dispersed?
Dispersal mechanisms - Wind - Animal eating - Animal fur - Water - Explosive
Dispersal mechanisms - Wind - Animal eating - Animal fur - Water - Explosive
0
What does a food chain show?
the interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, including food webs and insect pollinated crops
A food chain shows how energy passes from one organism to another.
0
What do food chains start with?
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant.
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant.
0
How do plants get energy?
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis.
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis.
0
What is a consumer?
Organisms that eat other organisms are called consumers.
Organisms that eat other organisms are called consumers.
0
What is the second level in a food chain called?
The first consumer in a food chain is called the primary consumer. The second the secondary consumer and the third the tertiary. The final consumer is called the top consumer.
The first consumer in a food chain is called the primary consumer. The second the secondary consumer and the third the tertiary. The final consumer is called the top consumer.
0
What is an animal that hunts another animal called?
Animals that hunt other animals are called predators, they are unlikely to be primary consumers.
Animals that hunt other animals are called predators, they are unlikely to be primary consumers.
0
How is a food web difference to a food chain?
Food webs are formed by combing the multiple food chains in an ecosystem.
Food webs are formed by combing the multiple food chains in an ecosystem.
0
What is it called when changes in a population of one species affect the population of other species?
A change in the population of an organism in a food web will affect the other organisms in the food chain. This is known as interdependence.
A change in the population of an organism in a food web will affect the other organisms in the food chain. This is known as interdependence.
0
How is a pyramid or number arranged?
A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms are consumed at each stage (trophic level) of a food web. Generally, there are more organisms consumed at earlier stages. This is because most of the energy consumed is used for movement or staying warm. Little is used to build body mass.
A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms are consumed at each stage (trophic level) of a food web. Generally, there are more organisms consumed at earlier stages. This is because most of the energy consumed is used for movement or staying warm. Little is used to build body mass.
0
What is bioaccumulation and what levels of the food chain will it affect the most?
Organisms on low levels of the food web can ingest small amounts of toxic materials and survive. When multiple low level organisms are ingested by higher level organisms the toxic materials accumulate to levels that are dangerous. This is called bioaccumulation.
Organisms on low levels of the food web can ingest small amounts of toxic materials and survive. When multiple low level organisms are ingested by higher level organisms the toxic materials accumulate to levels that are dangerous. This is called bioaccumulation.
0
Why are insect pollinators important to humans?
the importance of plant reproduction through insect pollination in human food security
75% of the food we eat relies on insect pollinated crops.
0
If a field only grows the crop and no other plants, why might this be bad for insects?
In large areas growing single crops, there is no food for insects when the crop is not in flower.
In large areas growing single crops, there is no food for insects when the crop is not in flower.
0
Why should we look after insect pollinators?
It is important to ensure the survival of pollinating insects to ensure human food security.
It is important to ensure the survival of pollinating insects to ensure human food security.
0
What is photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is a chemical reaction that requires light energy to react together carbon dioxide and water to produce oxygen and glucose.
PLANNING AIM: How does light affect the height of seedlings over time?
0
Where does photosynthesis take place?
Photosynthesis takes place in any green part of a plant where chlorophyll is present
Sow seeds
0
What are the products of photosynthesis?
The products of photosynthesis are glucose (a sugar) and oxygen
Plants making carbohydrates in their leaves by photosynthesis
0
Where are plants found in the food chain?
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant. (FROM 2B)
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant. (FROM 2B)
0
How do plants get their energy?
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. (FROM 2B)
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. (FROM 2B)
0
What does 'photo' mean?
'Photo' is from the Greek for 'light'.
'Photo' is from the Greek for 'light'.
0
What does 'synthesis' mean?
'Synthesis' is from the Greek for 'put together or combine'.
'Synthesis' is from the Greek for 'put together or combine'.
0
What happens to particles in synthesis?
Synthesis is the bonding together of small particles to form bigger particles.
Synthesis is the bonding together of small particles to form bigger particles.
0
What happens to the particles in decomposition?
Decomposition is the splitting of large particles in smaller particles.
Decomposition is the splitting of large particles in smaller particles.
0
What types of cells does the most amount of photosynthesis happen?
Most photosynthesis takes place in palisade cells.
Most photosynthesis takes place in palisade cells.
0
Where in a plant cell does photosynthesis take place?
Palisade cells are adapted for photosynthesis by having lots of chloroplasts. NB: Main thrust of lessons should be looking at cells.
Palisade cells are adapted for photosynthesis by having lots of chloroplasts. NB: Main thrust of lessons should be looking at cells.
0
What is the word equation for photosynthesis?
The word summary for photosynthesis is: Carbon Dioxide plus Water becomes Glucose plus Oxygen using light energy.
The word summary for photosynthesis is: Carbon Dioxide plus Water becomes Glucose plus Oxygen using light energy.
0
What are the reactants of photosynthesi
The reactants of photosynthesis are: Carbon Dioxide and Water
The reactants of photosynthesis are: Carbon Dioxide and Water
0
Where does the plant get carbon dioxide from?
Carbon Dioxide is absorbed from the air.
Carbon Dioxide is absorbed from the air.
0
Where does water come from for the plant and where does it enter the plant?
Water is absorbed from the ground through the roots.
Water is absorbed from the ground through the roots.
0
How does carbon dioxide get absorbed into the plant?
Carbon dioxide is absorbed through the leaves.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed through the leaves.
0
What chemicals are the products of photosynthesis?
The products of photosynthesis are: Glucose and Oxygen
The products of photosynthesis are: Glucose and Oxygen
0
What happens to the glucose in a plant?
Glucose is used or stored in the plant.
Glucose is used or stored in the plant.
0
Where does the oxygen made in a plant leave from?
Oxygen is released through the leaves into the air.
Oxygen is released through the leaves into the air.
0
What is glucose converted into when stored in a plant?
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
0
What is the word equation for aerobic respiration?
the reactants in, and products of, photosynthesis, and a word summary for photosynthesis
The word summary for respiration is: Glucose plus Oxygen becomes Carbon Dioxide plus Water releasing energy.
0
What is the symbol equation for photosynthesis?
The symbol equation for photosynthesis is: CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O -> C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> With a wavy arrow showing the light energy.
The symbol equation for photosynthesis is: CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O -> C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> With a wavy arrow showing the light energy.
0
What happens to atoms in chemical reactions?
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms.
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms.
0
What happens to the numbers of each atom in a chemical reaction?
No particles are created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Therefore the equation needs to be balanced.
DESIRABLE: No particles are created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Therefore the equation needs to be balanced.
0
What makes photosynthesis an endothermic reaction?
Photosynthesis is an endothermic chemical reactions because it takes energy to build bigger molecules.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic chemical reactions because it takes energy to build bigger molecules.
0
What is the symbol equation for respiration?
The symbol equation for respiration is: C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> -> CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O With a wavy arrow showing the energy leaving the reaction.
The symbol equation for respiration is: C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> -> CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O With a wavy arrow showing the energy leaving the reaction.
0
What makes respiration an exothermic reaction?
Respiration is an exothermic chemical reactions because it releases energy when bigger molecules are split.
Respiration is an exothermic chemical reactions because it releases energy when bigger molecules are split.
0
How are leaves shaped to help photosynthesis?
Leaves are flat and so have a large surface area to collect the sunlight.
Leaves are flat and so have a large surface area to collect the sunlight.
0
How are palisade cells adapted to perform photosynthesis?
The palisade cells, found towards the top of the leaves, have lots of chloroplast which perform photosynthesis.
The palisade cells, found towards the top of the leaves, have lots of chloroplast which perform photosynthesis.
0
What is glucose converted into when stored in a plant?
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
0
What is used to test for starch and what is the colour change?
The test for starch is it reacts with iodine, turning black.
The test for starch is it reacts with iodine, turning black.
0
What is the role of the stomata in the plant?
the role of leaf stomata in gas exchange in plants
the role of leaf stomata in gas exchange in plants
0
what are the holes in the bottom of a leaf called?
Stomata
Stomata
0
How do plants gain water?
plants gaining water from the soil via their roots
Plants gaining water from the soil via their roots
0
How do plants gain the mineral nutrients they need?
plants gaining mineral nutrients from the soil via their roots
Plants gaining mineral nutrients from the soil via their roots
0
Why do root hair cells have no chloroplasts?
Root hair cells have no chloroplast because they do not receive light.
Root hair cells have no chloroplast because they do not receive light.
0
Why do root hair cells have a large surface area?
Root hair cells have a larger surface area to absorb more water and minerals.
Root hair cells have a larger surface area to absorb more water and minerals.
0
Where do stomata occur on the leaf?
There are more stomata on the bottom of the leaf than on the top
There are more stomata on the bottom of the leaf than on the top
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What are the five food groups of a human diet?
the content of a healthy human diet: carbohydrates, lipids (fats and oils), proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water, and why each is needed
The five food groups of a human diet are: - carbohydrates (sugar and starch), - lipids (fats and oils), - proteins, - vitamins and minerals, - dietary fibre - (and water).
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What type of carbohydrate is used by the body for slow release energy?
Carbohydrates: Starch is used slow release energy.
Carbohydrates: Starch is used for slow release energy.
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What type of carbohydrate is used by the body for quick release energy?
Carbohydrates: Sugar is used quick release energy.
Carbohydrates: Sugar is used for quick release energy.
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What are Lipids used for?
Lipids are used for slow release energy, protection of organs and cell building.
Lipids are used for slow release energy, protection of organs and cell building.
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What does the body use Protein for?
Proteins are used for growth, cell repair and cell replacement.
Proteins are used for growth, cell repair and cell replacement.
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Which food group is needed in small quantities for a healthy body?
Vitamins and minerals are needed in small quantities for a healthy body.
Vitamins and minerals are needed in small quantities for a healthy body.
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What is Dietary Fibre needed for?
Dietary Fibre is needed for healthy waste removal.
Dietary Fibre is needed for healthy waste removal.
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What is the definition for a 'Balanced Diet'?
A 'Balanced Diet' is a diet in which neither too much energy is consumed, nor too much of any one type of food group.
A 'Balanced Diet' is a diet in which neither too much energy is consumed, nor too much of any one type of food group.
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Which food type(s) are required in the greatest proportion
Fruit and vegetables and Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta
A balanced diet consists of these proportions of food types: Fruit and vegetables: 33% Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta: 33% Milk and other dairy products : 15% Meat, fish, egg, beans: 12% Foods and drinks high in energy: 7%
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What is the definition of a food group?
A food group is what substances are in the food.
A food group is what substances are in the food.
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What is the definition of a food type?
A food type is the name of the food.
A food type is the name of the food.
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Which food type provides vitamins, minerals and fibre?
Fruit and vegetables give Vitamins and minerals and Fibre
Fruit and vegetables give Vitamins and minerals and Fibre
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Which 4 types of food provide slow release energy (starch)?
Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta gives starch (Carbohydrates) for slow energy.
Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta gives Starch (Carbohydrates)
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Which food type provides vitamins, minerals and lipids?
Milk and milk products provides vitamins, minerals and lipids.
Milk and milk products gives Protein; Lipids; Vitamins and Minerals
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What food group do meat, fish, eggs and beans provide?
Meat, fish, eggs and beans provide protein and lipids.
Meat, fish, egg, beans gives Protein; Lipids
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What type of carbohydrate does food high in energy contain?
Foods and drinks high in energy tend to contain Sugars (Carbohydrates)
Foods and drinks high in energy tend to conatain lots of sugars (Carbohydrates) and lipids.
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What type of energy is stored in food?
Energy in food is chemical energy.
Energy in food is chemical energy.
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What is food energy measured in (in catering)?
Energy in food is measured in catering calories (Kilocalories)
Energy in food is measured in catering calories (Kilocalories)
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What is food energy measured in (in science)?
Energy in food is measured in Kilojoules in science.
Energy in food is measured in Kilojoules in science.
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How are the energy requirements of a healthy diet calculated?
calculations of energy requirements in a healthy daily diet
Even when you are asleep you require energy to stay alive.
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What do we require energy for?
You require energy to do anything more than stay alive.
You require energy to do anything more than stay alive.
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What is the term for the energy required just to stay alive?
The energy required just to stay alive is known as your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).
The energy required just to stay alive is known as your Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR).
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What is the amount of energy you used during the day called?
The energy you expend through the day doing activities is known as your Active Metabolic Rate (AMR).
The energy you expend through the day doing activities is known as your Active Metabolic Rate (AMR).
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What does BMR depend on?
Your BMR depends on your age and gender.
Your BMR depends on your age and gender.
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What does AMR depend on?
Your AMR depends on your activities.
Your AMR depends on your activities.
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How do you work out someones total energy requirements?
Total Energy Requirements = BMR plus AMR
Total Energy Requirements = BMR plus AMR
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What happens if someone consumes more energy than they use?
the consequences of imbalances in the diet, including obesity, starvation and deficiency diseases
If a person consumes more energy than they use they gain weight.
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What happens if someone consumes less energy than they use?
If a person consumes less energy than they use they lose weight.
If a person consumes less energy than they use they lose weight.
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What is the medical term for someone who is excessively fat?
People who are excessively fat are said to be obese.
People who are excessively fat are said to be obese.
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What health problems does obesity cause?
Obesity leads to health problems: - arthritis (worn joints) - diabetes (high blood sugar) - high blood pressure - heart disease
Obesity leads to health problems: - arthritis (worn joints) - diabetes (high blood sugar) - high blood pressure - heart disease
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When does starvation occur?
Starvation occurs when a person does not consume enough energy to live (over the medium term).
Starvation occurs when a person does not consume enough energy to live (over the medium term).
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What can happen when you do not consume enough vitamins or minerals?
If you do not consume enough vitamins and minerals then you may suffer from deficiency diseases, as cells are unable to function properly.
If you do not consume enough vitamins and minerals then you may suffer from deficiency diseases, as cells are unable to function properly.
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Which organ system is involved in digestion?
Digestion happens in the digestive system.
Digestion happens in the digestive system.
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Which organs are part of the digestive system?
The parts of the digestive system: Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small intestine, Large intestine, Appendix, Rectum, Anus.
The parts of the digestive system: Mouth, Oesophagus, Stomach, Liver, Pancreas, Small intestine, Large intestine, Appendix, Rectum, Anus.
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How is food broken down in the mouth?
Food is broken down into smaller pieces by chewing in the mouth.
Food is broken down into smaller pieces by chewing in the mouth.
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What is the result of of having smaller pieces of food?
The food will have a larger surface area.
Chewing food into smaller pieces increase the surface area of the food.
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How does a larger surface area affect digestion?
The surface area of food allows more food - saliva contact which speeds up the rate of digestion.
The surface area of food allows more food - saliva contact. More food - saliva contact speeds up the rate of digestion.
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How is food broken down in the stomach?
Food is churned in the stomach which physically breaks the food down. Stomach acids help to break down the food chemically.
Food is churned in the stomach which physically breaks the food down. Stomach acids help to break down the food chemically.
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Where are the nutrients from absorbed?
The nutrients from the digested food are absorbed into the blood stream in the small intestines.
The nutrients from the digested food are absorbed into the blood stream in the small intestines.
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How are nutrients absorbed in the small intestine?
Nutrients diffuse from inside the small intestine into the blood vessels surround it.
The nutrients from the digested food diffuse through the intestine wall.
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What is the role of the villi? Explain your answer.
Microscopic projections called villi increase the surface area of the intestine. Therefore increasing the rate of diffusion of useful particles from the intestines to the bloodstream.
Microscopic projections called villi increase the surface area of the intestine. Therefore increasing the rate of diffusion of useful particles from the intestines to the bloodstream.
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Compare the concentrations of nutrients in the small intestine to the blood surround it.
There is a high concentration of nutrients in the intestine and a lower concentration in the blood.
There is a high concentration of nutrients in the intestine and a lower concentration in the blood. This creates a concentration gradient.
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Why is there a great concentration gradient?
There is a big difference in concentration. There is a short distance between the high concentration and the low concentration.
The concentration gradient is great because - the distance between the digested food and the blood is small because the wall of the intestine is thin. - there is a good blood supply to remove the nutrients from the blood vessel next to the intestine.
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Why is the small intestine so long?
The small intestine is long to maximise the time in which diffusion can happen and so get the most from the food that we eat.
The small intestine is long (up to 9 meters) to maximise the time in which (complete digestion and) diffusion can happen.
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What happens to the excess water?
Excess water is absorbed back into the blood stream through the large intestines.
Excess water is absorbed back into the blood stream through the large intestines.
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What is faeces?
Undigested food passes out of the anus as faeces when we go to the toilet.
Undigested food passes out of the anus as faeces when we go to the toilet.
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What are enzymes and where are they produced?
Enzymes are biological catalysts (help specific chemical reactions to happen) that are produced in salivary glands and the pancreas.
Enzymes are biological catalysts (help specific chemical reactions to happen) that are produced in salivary glands and the pancreas.
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Which enzyme breaks down carbohydrates?
Amylase enzymes in the mouth break carbohydrates down into sugars.
Amylase enzymes in the mouth break carbohydrates down into sugars.
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Which food does protease break down?
Protease enzymes in the stomach break proteins down into amino acids.
Protease enzymes in the stomach break proteins down into amino acids.
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Where is lipase used?
Lipase enzymes in the small intestines break fats down into glycerol and fatty acids.
Lipase enzymes in the small intestines break Lipids down into glycerol and fatty acids.
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Which other enzymes are found in the small intestines?
Amylase and Protease enzymes in the small intestines break undigested carbohydrates and proteins
Amylase and Protease enzymes in the small intestines break undigested carbohydrates and proteins
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How do the nutrients reach the blood stream?
Nutrients are now small enough to be absorbed through the lining of the small intestines into the bloodstream.
Nutrients are now small enough to be absorbed through the lining of the small intestines into the bloodstream.
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How is the lining of the small intestines adapted?
The lining of the small intestines is adapted to have a thin lining, large surface area and good blood supply.
The lining of the small intestines is adapted to have a thin lining, large surface area and good blood supply.
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What is absorbed through the lining of the large intestines?
Water is absorbed through the lining of the large intestines.
Water is absorbed through the lining of the large intestines.
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What happens to the undigested food?
Anything left is excreted
Anything left is excreted
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What role does bacteria play in the human digestive system?
the importance of bacteria in the human digestive system
the importance of bacteria in the human digestive system
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What is the function of the Testes?
Testes are where sperm cells are produced.
Testes is a bag of skin which holds the testes away from the body so the testes are cooler.
Testes add fluids to sperm to make semen. Sperm use this fluid as an energy source.
Testes is a tube which carries sperm out of the penis.
Structure and function of the male reproductive systems: - Testes: Where sperm cells are produced.
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What is the function of the Scrotum?
The Scrotum is a bag of skin which holds the testes away from the body so the testes are cooler.
The Scrotum is where sperm cells are produced.
The Scrotum add fluids to sperm to make semen. Sperm use this fluid as an energy source.
The Scrotum is a tube which carries the semen to the penis.
- Scrotum: A bag of skin which holds the testes away from the body so the testes are cooler.
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What is the function of the Glands?
The Glands add fluids to sperm to make semen. Sperm use this fluid as an energy source.
The Glands are the tubes which carries the semen to the penis.
The Glands allows insertion of semen into female.
The Glands are where sperm cells are produced.
- Glands: Adds fluids to sperm to make semen. Sperm use this fluid as an energy source.
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What is the function of the Sperm duct?
The Sperm duct is a tube which carries the semen to the penis.
The Sperm duct adds fluids to sperm to make semen. Sperm use this fluid as an energy source.
The Sperm duct allows insertion of semen into female.
The Sperm duct is where sperm cells are produced.
- Sperm duct: Tube which carries the semen to the penis.
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What is the function of the Penis?
The Penis allows insertion of semen into female.
The Penis is where sperm cells are produced.
The Penis carries eggs to the Uterus.
The Penis adds fluids to sperm to make semen.
- Penis: Allows insertion into female.
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What is the function of the Urethra?
The Urethra is a tube which carries sperm out of the penis.
The Urethra is a tube which carries the semen to the penis.
The Urethra is a tube which carries eggs from the ovary to the Uterus.
The Urethra is a tube which carries the eggs to the Penis.
- Urethra: Tube which carries sperm out of the penis.
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What is the function of the Ovary?
The Ovary is where eggs are stored and matured.
The Ovary is where fertilisation happens.
The Ovary is where sperm is produced.
The Ovary is where the baby develops.
Structure and function of the female reproductive systems: - Ovary: Where eggs are stored and matured.
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What is the function of the Oviducts?
The Oviducts are tubes which carries eggs from the ovary to the Uterus.
The Oviducts are tubes which carries the semen to the penis.
The Oviducts are tubes which carries sperm out of the penis.
The Oviducts are tubes which carries the eggs to the Penis.
- Oviducts: Tube which carries eggs from the ovary to the Uterus.
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What is the function of the Uterus?
The Uterus is where the baby develops.
The Uterus is a tube which carries eggs from the ovary.
The Uterus is where eggs are stored and matured.
The Uterus receives the semen.
- Uterus: Where the baby develops.
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What is the function of the Cervix?
The Cervix is the opening of the Uterus.
The Cervix is where the baby develops.
The Cervix is a tube which carries eggs from the ovary.
The Cervix is where eggs are stored and matured.
- Cervix: The opening of the Uterus.
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What is the function of the Vagina?
The Vagina receives the semen.
The Vagina is where the baby develops.
The Vagina is the opening of the Uterus.
The Vagina is where eggs are stored and matured.
- Vagina: Receives the semen.
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What happens to the lining of the Uterus during the Menstrual cycle?
During the Menstrual cycle the blood rich lining of the Uterus thickens in readiness for pregnancy. If not used the lining is shed during menstruation.
During the Menstrual cycle the blood rich lining of the Uterus thins in readiness for pregnancy. If not used the lining is shed during menstruation.
During the Menstrual cycle the blood rich lining of the Uterus thickens in readiness for pregnancy. If used the lining is shed during menstruation.
During the Menstrual cycle the blood rich lining of the Uterus thins in readiness for pregnancy. If used the lining is shed during menstruation.
During the Menstrual cycle the blood rich lining of the Uterus thickens in readiness for pregnancy. If not used the lining is shed during menstruation. (without details of hormones)
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How is a sperm cell structure linked to is function?
Sperm Cells have a pointed head which is streamlined for swimming and entering egg. The also have lots of mitrochondria to give energy needed to swim.
Sperm Cells have a pointed head to give lots of energy. The also have lots of mitrochondria to enter the egg.
Sperm Cells have a large food store for initial growth.
Sperm Cells have a large food store to give energy for swimming.
gametes: cell structure linked to function Sperm Cells: - Tail: to be able to swim. - Pointed head: streamlined for swimming and entering egg. - Lots of mitrochondria: energy needed to swim, mitrochondria need to release energy through respiration.
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How is a egg cell structure linked to is function?
Egg Cells have a large food store for initial growth.
Egg Cells have a pointed head which is streamlined for swimming and entering egg. The also have lots of mitrochondria to give energy needed to swim.
Egg Cells have a large food store to give energy for swimming.
Egg Cells have a tail for swimming.
gametes: cell structure linked to function Egg Cells: - Large food store for initial growth
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What happens during fertilisation?
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm's nucleus fuses with eggs nucleus.
Fertilisation occurs when the Zygote starts dividing.
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm enters the egg.
Fertilisation occurs when the ball of cells implants in the Uterus lining.
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm's nucleus fuses with eggs nucleus. This forms a zygote.
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How does a gamete compare from a 'normal cell'?
Gametes only contain half the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes only contain twice the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes have the same amount of DNA as a 'normal' cell.
Gametes are twice the size of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes only contain half the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
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Where must fertilisation occur for a pregnancy to be possible?
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Oviduct tubes.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Vagina.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Ovary.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Uterus.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the oviduct tubes.
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What is the ball of cells called when a zygote divides to copy itself?
The zygote divides and copies itself to produce a ball of cells called a embryo.
The zygote divides and copies itself to produce a ball of cells called a twin.
The zygote divides and copies itself to produce a ball of cells called a fetus.
The zygote divides and copies itself to produce a ball of cells called a baby.
The zygote copies and divides and itself to produce a ball of cells called a embryo.
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What happens to the embryo for a women to become pregnant?
A women becomes pregnant when the embryo implants in the blood rich lining of the Uterus.
A women becomes pregnant when the embryo implants in the blood rich lining of the Vagina.
A women becomes pregnant when the sperm's nucleus fuses with eggs nucleus.
A women becomes pregnant when the zygote divides and copies itself.
A women becomes pregnant when the embryo implants in the blood rich lining of the Uterus.
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What does an embryo develop into?
The embryo develops into a Fetus.
The embryo develops into a Baby.
The embryo develops into a Zygote.
The embryo develops into a Gamete.
The embryo develops into a fetus. It is called a fetus when it heart starts beating.
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What does the placenta do?
The Placenta allows substances to cross from the mother's blood into the fetus and vice versa.
The Placenta allows mother's blood and substances to mix with the fetus'.
The Placenta allows substances to cross from the mother's blood into the fetus only.
The Placenta allows substances to cross from the fetus'; blood into the mother's only.
Part of the embryo develops into a placenta, which allows substances to cross from the mother's blood into the fetus, and vice versa.
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What is the gestation period?
The gestation period is the time spend developing in the uterus.
The gestation period is the time taken for the sperm and egg nuclei to fuse.
The gestation period is the time taken for the sperm to swim to the egg cell.
The gestation period is the time taken for the embryo to start it's heart beating.
The time spend in the uterus is called gestation period. During this time cells continue to copy and divide allowing the fetus to grow.
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What happens during birth?
During birth, the cervix dilates and the uterus contracts pushing the Fetus through the cervix and vagina.
During birth, the Uterus dilates and the Cervix contracts pushing the Fetus through Oviduct and Vagina.
During birth, the Uterus dilates and the Cervix contracts pushing the Fetus through Cervix and Vagina.
During birth, the Cervix dilates and the Uterus contracts pushing the Fetus through Oviduct and Vagina.
During birth, the cervix dilates and the uterus contracts pushing the Fetus through the cervix and vagina.
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In order of size, smallest first, what are the 'units' of genetic information?
In size order the genetic information is arranged as Base Pairs => Gene => DNA => Chromosome => Nucleus
In size order the genetic information is arranged as DNA => Base Pairs => Gene=> Chromosome => Nucleus
In size order the genetic information is arranged as Base Pairs => Gene => DNA => Nucleus => Chromosome
In size order the genetic information is arranged as Gene => Base Pairs => DNA => Chromosome => Nucleus
In size order the genetic information is arranged as follow: Base Pairs => Gene => Chromosome => Nucleus
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What is the shape of the DNA Molecule?
DNA is a long molecule that contains the genetic information for an organism. DNA is in the form of a double helix of 2 strands, joined through base pairs.
DNA is a long molecule that contains the genetic information for an organism. DNA is in the form of a double helix of 2 strands, joined through base pairs.
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What gives the code to create proteins?
The order of the bases gives the code to create proteins/give characteristics.
The order of the bases gives the code to create proteins/give characteristics.
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Compare genes and chromosomes.
Long strands of DNA are called chromosomes. Genes are sections of DNA that give instructions for a particular characteristic. Genes can be found at particular locations on the chromosome.
Long strands of DNA are called chromosomes. Genes are sections of DNA that give instructions for a particular characteristic. Genes can be found at particular locations on the chromosome.
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What role did Pauling and Chargaff, have in the developing the DNA model?
Before the discovery of the DNA structure, Pauling had already discovered helical proteins and Chargaff had already discovered there were always equal numbers of bases A and T and also equal numbers of C and G.
Before the discovery of the DNA structure, Pauling had already discovered helical proteins and Chargaff had already discovered there were always equal numbers of bases A and T and also equal numbers of C and G.
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What role did Watson and Crick have in the developing the DNA model?
Watson and Crick worked out the shape of the DNA double helix and how it could be replicated.
Watson and Crick worked out the shape of the DNA double helix and how it could be replicated.
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What role did Franklin and Wilkins have in the developing the DNA model?
Franklin and Wilkins used the new technology of X-ray crystallography to make photographs of the DNA molecule and revealing its shape.
Franklin and Wilkins used the new technology of X-ray crystallography to make photographs of the DNA molecule and revealing its shape. Watson and Crick didn’t properly acknowledge the research carried out by Franklin and Wilkins they used to come up with their discovery.
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What factors are needed for scientific understanding to progress?
The factors needed for scientific understanding to progress including the improvements in technology and building on discoveries by other scientists.
The factors needed for scientific understanding to progress including the improvements in technology and building on discoveries by other scientists.
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What is heredity?
Heredity is the process by which genetic information is transmitted from one generation to the next.
Heredity is the process by which characteristics are determined by the environment.
Heredity is the process by which genetic information is randomly changed when copied.
Heredity is the process by which organisms grow.
Heredity is the process by which genetic information is transmitted from one generation to the next.
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What is a species?
A species is a group of organisms who can produce offspring can also reproduce.
A species is a group of organisms who can produce offspring that are sterile.
A species is a group of organisms who can not produce offspring.
A species is a group of organisms with similar characteristics.
A species is defined as a group of organisms who's genetic information is compatible such that their offspring can also reproduce.
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What happen if closely related species reproduce?
Similar species can reproduce, creating sterile offspring.
Similar species can reproduce, creating sterile offspring.
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What is biodiversity?
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of species in an area.
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of organisms in an area.
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of layers in a food chain.
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of food chains in an area.
Biodiversity is a measure of the number of species in an area.
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Why is maintaining biodiversity important?
the importance of maintaining biodiversity: means all the roles in the ecosystem are occupied, maintains genetic variation, the ecosystem has a greater stability, can save potential useful species from extinction.
the importance of maintaining biodiversity: means all the roles in the ecosystem are occupied, maintains genetic variation, the ecosystem has a greater stability, can save potential useful species from extinction.
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What are genes banks for?
The use of gene banks is to preserve hereditary material.
The use of gene banks is to preserve hereditary material.
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How can variation lead to natural selection?
the variation between species and between individuals of the same species meaning some organisms compete more successfully, which can drive natural selection
the variation between species and between individuals of the same species meaning some organisms compete more successfully, which can drive natural selection
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What is the definition of a species?
A species is defined as a group of organisms who's genetic information is compatible such that their offspring can also reproduce.
A species is defined as a group of organisms who's genetic information is compatible such that their offspring can also reproduce.
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Despite belonging to the same species, individuals often are different. What is this difference called and what two forms can it grouped into?
the variation between individuals within a species being continuous or discontinuous, to include measurement and graphical representation of variation
The differences between individuals within a species are called variation .
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What is continuous variation?
The variation between individuals within a species being continuous when there are (near) infinite number of possibilities. Continuous variation is often measureable and with units.
The variation between individuals within a species being continuous when there are (near) infinite number of possibilities.
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What is discontinuous variation?
Discontinuous variation is often described by words or integers. The variation between individuals within a species being discontinuous when fits into a distinct category
Discontinuous variation is often described by words or integers
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How would a graph of discontinuous variation and continuous variation be different?
Discontinuous would be a bar graph of categories and their frequency. Continuous would be a histogram of artificially made groups and their frequency.
measurement and graphical representation of variation
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How can a change in the environment cause evolution and even possibly extinction?
changes in the environment which may leave individuals within a species, and some entire species, less well adapted to compete successfully and reproduce, which in turn may lead to extinction
changes in the environment which may leave individuals within a species, and some entire species, less well adapted to compete successfully and reproduce, which in turn may lead to extinction
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Why do cells require energy?
Cells require energy in order to fulfill their function.
Cells require energy in order to fulfill their function.
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How do cells obtain energy?
All cells obtain energy through respiration.
All cells obtain energy through respiration.
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Where in a cell does most respiration happen in a cell?
Most respiration happens in the mitochondria of a cell.
Most respiration happens in the mitochondria of a cell.
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What is respiration in terms of particles?
Respiration is the breaking breakdown of large particles which contain lots of energy into smaller particles containing less energy. The extra energy is released from the chemical reaction is used by the cell.
Respiration is the decomposing (breaking down) of large particles which contain lots of energy into smaller particles containing less energy. The extra energy is released from the chemical reaction is used by the cell.
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In terms of energy, what type of reaction is respiration?
Respiration is an exothermic reaction.
Respiration is an exothermic reaction.
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What do cells need for respiration?
For respiration cells need Glucose (sugar) and oxygen.
For respiration cells need Glucose (sugar) and oxygen.
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What is the most common type of respiration in plants and animals?
Most animals and plants do respiration using oxygen. This is called aerobic respiration.
Most animals and plants do respiration using oxygen. This is called aerobic respiration.
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What is the word equation for aerobic respiration?
Aerobic respiration can be represented as Glucose plus Oxygen => Carbon Dioxide plus Water ( plus Energy )
Aerobic respiration can be represented as Glucose plus Oxygen => Carbon Dioxide plus Water ( plus Energy )
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Why do cells switch the type of respiration they are doing?
When there isn't enough oxygen, cells can't do aerobic energy. Instead cells do anaerobic respiration.
When there isn't enough oxygen, cells can't do aerobic energy. Instead cells do anaerobic respiration.
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What is the word equation for anaerobic respiration?
Anaerobic respiration can be represented as Glucose => Lactic acid ( plus Energy )
Anaerobic respiration can be represented as Glucose => Lactic acid ( plus Energy )
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Why do most plants and animals do aerobic respiration, rather than anaerobic?
Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic energy.
Anaerobic respiration releases less energy than aerobic energy.
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What effect does Lactic acid have?
Lactic acid causes a burning sensation in the muscle and possibly cramps.
Lactic acid causes a burning sensation in the muscle and possibly cramps.
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How do we get rid of Lactic acid?
To get rid of the Lactic acid, it must be combined with oxygen to convert it back into water and carbon dioxide.
To get rid of the Lactic acid, it must be combined with oxygen to convert it back into water and carbon dioxide.
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Describe what particles do in a fluid.
Particles in a fluid are always moving.
Particles in a fluid are always moving.
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What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
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What is concentration?
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
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How do the random movement of particles result in the movement from a higher concentration to a lower concentration?
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
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Under what conditions does diffusion happen faster?
Diffusion happens fastest when: - there is a large surface area - there is a short distance between areas of differing concentration. - at higher temperatures.
Diffusion happens fastest when: - there is a large surface area - there is a large difference in concentration - there is a short distance between areas of differing concentration. - at higher temperatures.
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Why does glucose diffuse into muscle cells from the blood?
Glucose diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of glucose particles in the blood than the cell.
Glucose diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of glucose particles in the blood than the cell.
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Why does oxygen diffuse into muscle cells from the blood?
Oxygen diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
Oxygen diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
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Why does carbon dioxide diffuse out of muscle cells into the blood?
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of Carbon dioxide particles in the cell than the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of Carbon dioxide particles in the cell than the blood.
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Why does water diffuse out of muscle cells into the blood?
Water diffuses out a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
Water diffuses out a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
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How can diffusion occur in and out of cells.
Diffusion occurs through the cell membrane, because there are small gaps in the membrane.
Diffusion occurs through the cell membrane, because there are small gaps in the me.
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What does partially-permeable mean?
Partially-permeable allows certain particles through but not others.permeable..
Partially-permeable allows certain particles through but not others.
0
Why is the cell membrane referred to as partially-permeable?
The small gaps allow smaller molecules through but not larger ones. This means the membrane is partially-
These small gaps allow smaller molecules through but not larger ones. This means the membrane is partially-permeable
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What are the main parts of the human circulatory?
The main parts of the human circulatory system are: - heart - blood vessels - Arteries - Veins - Capillaries - blood
Identify the main parts of the human circulatory system: - heart - blood vessels - Arteries - Veins - Capillaries - blood
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Which direction do the arteries move the blood?
Arteries take blood away from the heart.
Arteries take blood away from the heart.
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Which direction do the veins move the blood?
Veins take blood into the heart.
Veins take blood into the heart.
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What blood vessel helps carry out exchange between the blood and cells?
Capillaries carry blood between cells.
Capillaries carry blood between cells.
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What is the part of the blood made of mainly water and dissolved chemicals called?
Blood is made up of mainly water with chemicals dissolved in it. This is called plasma.
Blood is made up of mainly water with chemicals dissolved in it. This is called plasma.
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What gases are dissolved in the plasma?
Carbon dioxide and some Oxygen are dissolved in the plasma.
Carbon dioxide and some Oxygen are dissolved in the plasma.
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What part of the blood carries most of the oxygen?
Blood has Red Blood Cells in it to carry far more oxygen.
Blood has Red Blood Cells in it to carry far more oxygen.
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What gas diffuses from the lungs into the blood?
Oxygen diffuses into the blood in the lungs.
Oxygen diffuses into the blood in the lungs.
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What gas diffuses out of the blood into the lungs?
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood in the lungs.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood in the lungs.
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which organ does glucose enter the blood from?
Glucose mainly diffuses into the blood in the small intestine.
Glucose mainly diffuses into the blood in the small intestine.
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Which organ removes excess water from the blood?
Excess water is mainly filtered out of the blood in the kidneys.
Excess water is mainly filtered out of the blood in the kidneys.
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What organ is responsible for gas exchange in humans?
Gas exchange in humans occurs in the lungs.
Gas exchange in humans occurs in the lungs.
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How does the air enter the lungs?
Gas enters the mouth and nose and descends down the wind pipe (trachea).
Gas enters the mouth and nose and descends down the wind pipe (trachea).
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What does the wind pipe split into when it reaches the lungs?
The wind pipe splits into two Bronchi. One Bronchus to each lung.
The wind pipe splits into two Bronchi. One Bronchus to each lung.
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What are the smaller tubes the bronchi split off into called?
The Bronchi split into small tubes called Bronchioles.
The Bronchi split into small tubes called Bronchioles.
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What are the structures at the ends of bronchioles called?
The Bronchioles lead to the alveoli (air sacs)
The Bronchioles lead to the alveoli (air sacs)
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What are the lungs adapted to do for gas exchange?
Lungs are adapted to speed up gas exchange.
Lungs are adapted to speed up gas exchange.
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What adaptation does the alveoli give to help gas exchange?
The many Alveoli give the lungs a huge internal surface area.
The many Alveoli give the lungs a huge internal surface area.
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How does a large surface area help gas exchange?
Alveoli's large surface area allows more particles to travel at the same time.
Alveoli's large surface area allows more particles to travel through at the same time.
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What surrounds the alveoli?
There is a good blood supply surrounding the alveoli.
Alveoli have good blood supply.
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Why does a good blood supply improve the rate of gas exchange?
Alveoli's good blood supply maintains the difference in concentration.
Alveoli's good blood supply maintains the difference in concentration as oxygen is taken away and carbon dioxide delivered quickly.
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How thick are the alveoli?
Alveoli walls are only one cell thick.
Alveoli walls are only one cell thick.
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Why does the thin alveoli wall help gas exchange?
Alveoli's one cell thick walls reduces the distance the particles have to travel between the air and the blood.
Alveoli's one cell thick walls reduces the distance the particles have to travel between the air and the blood.
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What part of the human body is the thorax?
The chest cavity from the diagram up is called the Thorax.
The chest cavity from the diaphragm up is called the Thorax.
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What is the function of the ribs?
The ribs form a stiff boundary to the thorax.
The ribs form a stiff boundary to the thorax.
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What parts of the body are needed to ventilate the lungs in breathing?
The rib cage, intercostal muscles and diaphragm are used to breathe.
The rib cage, intercostal muscles and diaphragm are used to breathe.
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What happens to increase the volume of the lungs?
To move air into the lungs the rib cage is moved out and up by the intercostal muscles contracting. The diaphragm contracts and sinks.
To move air into the lungs the rib cage is moved out and up by the intercostal muscles contracting. The diaphragm contracts and sinks.
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How does the increase in lung volume cause breathing in?
The increase in the volume of the lungs, reduces the air pressure in the lungs to lower than the air outside, pulling air particles into the lungs..
The increase in the volume of the lungs, reduces the air pressure in the lungs to lower than the air outside, pulling air particles into the lungs.
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What happens to decrease the volume of the lungs?
To move air out of the lungs the rib cage is moved in and down by the intercostal muscles relaxing. The diaphragm relaxes and rises.
To move air out of the lungs the rib cage is moved in and down by the intercostal muscles relaxing. The diaphragm relaxes and rises.
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How does the decrease in lung volume cause breathing out?
The decrease in the volume of the lungs, increases the air pressure in the lungs to lower than the air outside, pushing the air particles out of the lungs.
The decrease in the volume of the lungs, increases the air pressure in the lungs to lower than the air outside, pushing the air particles out of the lungs.
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How does air pressure make air particles move?
When there is a difference in pressure between the air around the nose and the air in the lungs, particles will 'diffuse' from the area of high pressure the area of lower pressure.
When there is a difference in pressure between the air around the nose and the air in the lungs, particles will 'diffuse' from the area of high pressure the area of lower pressure.
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How could you measure lung volume?
You could use lung volume bags to measure the air breathed out.
Make simple measurements of lung volume.
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What change to the amount of different gases needed and expelled when exercising?
When humans exercise, more oxygen is required for respiration and more carbon dioxide needs to be expelled.
When humans exercise, more oxygen is required for respiration and more carbon dioxide needs to be expelled.
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What changes with the heart when oxygen is needed more quickly?
When humans exercise heart (pulse) rate increases to supply more blood to the lungs.
When humans exercise heart (pulse) rate increases to supply more blood to the lungs.
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What changes with the breathing when oxygen is needed more quickly?
When humans exercise we breath faster and deeper to supply more air to the lungs.
When humans exercise we breath faster and deeper to supply more air to the lungs.
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What does asthma do to the breathing tubes?
Asthma is caused by inflammation (swelling) of the breathing tubes that carry air in and out of the lungs.
Asthma is caused by inflammation (swelling) of the breathing tubes that carry air in and out of the lungs.
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How does asthma affect breathing?
This inflammation makes the breathing tubes narrower and so restricts speed at which air can enter the lungs.
This inflammation makes the breathing tubes narrower and so restricts speed at which air can enter the lungs.
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Name the three main chemicals in tobacco smoke that can reduce the oxygen pumped around the body?
Tobacco smoke contains: - Tar - Nicotine - Carbon monoxide
Tobacco smoke contains: - Tar - Nicotine - Carbon monoxide
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What does tar do to the lungs?
The tar lines the surface of the lungs.
The tar lines the surface of the lungs.
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How does tar affect how well the body can get oxygen?
The tar adds a barrier which slows down diffusion.
The tar adds a barrier which slows down diffusion.
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How is the reactivity of carbon monoxide compared to oxygen?
Carbon monoxide is more reactive than oxygen.
Carbon monoxide is more reactive than oxygen.
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How does carbon monoxide affect how well the body can get oxygen?
Carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen on the red blood cells, leaving less oxygen to be transported to the cells.
Carbon monoxide takes the place of oxygen on the red blood cells, leaving less oxygen to be transported to the cells.
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How does nicotine affect how well the body can get oxygen?
Nicotine is addictive - it causes a smoker to want more cigarettes. Nicotine also increases the heart rate and blood pressure, and makes blood vessels narrower than normal. This can lead to heart disease.
Nicotine is addictive - it causes a smoker to want more cigarettes. Nicotine also increases the heart rate and blood pressure, and makes blood vessels narrower than normal. This can lead to heart disease.
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How can drugs be classified using the law?
Drugs can be classified by their legal status.
Drugs can be classified by their legal status.
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What classifications of drugs are there?
Drugs can be legal and freely available, legal with an age restriction, legal and require prescription from a doctor or illegal with varying penalties (class of drugs).
Drugs can be legal and freely available, legal with an age restriction, legal and require prescription from a doctor or illegal with varying penalties (class of drugs).
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How can drugs be classified based on characteristics?
Drugs can be classified by what they do.
Drugs can be classified by what they do.
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What effect do depressants have on brain activity?
Depressants slows down brain activity.
Depressants slows down brain activity.
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What effect do hallucinogens have on humans?
Hallucinogens alters what we hear and see.
Hallucinogens alters what we hear and see.
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How do painkillers manage pain?
Painkillers block nerve impulses.
Painkillers blocks nerve impulses.
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How do performance enhancing drugs aid athletes?
Performance enhancers improve muscle development.
Performance enhancers improve muscle development.
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What effect do stimulants have on the brain?
Stimulants increase brain activity.
Stimulants increase brain activity.
0
What are the properties of solids?
Solids hold their shape.
Solids fill their containers.
Solids take the shape of the bottom of their container.
Solids shape of the shape of top of their container.
Solids hold their shape.
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What are the properties of liquids?
Liquids take the shape of the bottom of their container.
Liquids hold their shape.
Liquids fill their containers.
Liquids shape of the top of their container.
Liquids take the shape of the bottom of their containers.
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What are the properties of gases?
Gases fill their containers.
Gases take the shape of the bottom of their container.
Gases hold their shape.
Gases take the shape of the top of their container.
Gases fill their containers.
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What is a fluid?
Fluids are liquids and gases because they can flow.
Fluids are solid and gases because they can float.
Fluids are liquids and solid because they can flow.
Fluids are liquids and gases because they can float.
Liquids and gases are known as fluids because they can flow.
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What is anything with mass made of?
All matter (stuff) is made of particles.
All matter (stuff) is made of particles.
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How are the particles arranged in solids?
Particles in a solid form a lattice - regular pattern.
Particles in a solid are spread out and have no pattern.
Particles in a solid are touching, but have no pattern.
Particles in a solid are split.
Particles in a solid form a lattice - regular pattern.
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How are the particles arranged in liquids?
Particles in a liquid are touching, but have no pattern.
Particles in a liquid form a lattice - regular pattern.
Particles in a liquid are spread out and have no pattern.
Particles in a liquid are split.
Particles in a liquid are touching, but have no pattern.
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How are the particles arranged in gases?
Particles in a gas are spread out and have no pattern.
Particles in a gas are touching, but have no pattern.
Particles in a gas form a lattice - regular pattern.
Particles in a gas are split.
Particles in a gas are spread out, with no pattern.
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What property do substances which have particles that are able to move relative to each other have?
They are able to flow (occurs in both liquids and gases).
When particles can move relative to each other, the material can flow.
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What is density?
Density is the how heavy a material is for a given size/the ratio of mass to volume.
Lower: Density is the how heavy a material is for a given size. Higher: Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
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How can we use the a eureka can to measure the volume of an object?
Fill the eureka can with water and then place the object of interest into it. Measure the volume of water that is displaced.
Measure the mass and volume of material sample blocks / objects using eureka cans. Calculate density. Conversion of units and the use of unit prefixes.
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How does the density change between solid, liquid and gas?
- Solids are the most dense; - Gases are the least dense; - With liquids between.
- Gases are the most dense; - Solids are the least dense; - With liquids between.
- Solids are the most dense; - Liquids are the least dense; - With gases between.
- Gases are the most dense; - Liquids are the least dense; - With solids between.
For the same material: - Solids are the most dense; - Gases are the least dense; - With liquids between.
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What happens when a solid is heated but does not yet melt?
Matter expands when heated so becomes less dense.
Matter contracts when heated so becomes less dense.
Matter contracts when heated so becomes more dense.
Matter expands when heated so becomes more dense.
So what happens when a solid is heated but does not yet melt: Matter expands when heated Matter becomes less dense when heated.
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What happens to particles when they are heated?
Particles move faster when heated, and so occupy a larger space.
Particles move faster when heated, and so occupy a smaller space.
Particles move slower when heated, and so occupy a larger space.
Particles move slower when heated, and so occupy a smaller space.
Particles move faster when heated, and so occupy a larger space. Particles do not change size, but can be of different sizes.
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What happens to the force of collision of particles when heated?
When heated, the forces involved in collisions increases as the particles are moving faster.
When heated, the forces involved in collisions decreases as the particles are moving faster.
When heated, the forces involved in collisions increases as the particles are moving slower.
When heated, the forces involved in collisions decreases as the particles are moving slower.
When heated, the forces involved in collisions increases as the particles are moving faster.
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At what temperature would particles ever be stationary?
Particles are never stationary - other than at absolute zero There is nothing in the gaps between particles.
Particles are never stationary - other than at absolute zero There is nothing in the gaps between particles.
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What common chemical is an anomaly and actually less dense as a solid?
The anomaly of ice-water transition: This is why ice floats on water and a full bottle of water breaks in a freezer. It expands and becomes less dense when freezing to a solid.
DESIRABLE: The anomaly of ice-water transition: Less dense objects float. If solids are more dense than liquids, why does ice float on water? Why does a full bottle of water break when left in a freezer? Ice is less dense than water.
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What are the processes of a solid turning into a liquid and a liquid turning into a gas called? What are the processes called changing from a gas to a liquid?
The process of a solid turning into a liquid is called melting. The process of a liquid turning into a solid is called freezing. The process of a liquid turning into a gas is called evaporation. The process of a gas turning into a liquid is called condensation.
The process of a solid turning into a liquid is called melting. The process of a liquid turning into a solid is called freezing. The process of a liquid turning into a gas is called evaporation. The process of a gas turning into a liquid is called condensation.
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What is the process of a solid turning into a gas called?
The process of a solid turning into a gas is called sublimation.
The process of a solid turning into a gas is called evaporation.
The process of a solid turning into a gas is called condensation.
The process of a solid turning into a gas is called deposition.
The process of a solid turning into a gas is called sublimation. These are all changes of state, as solid, liquid and gas are known as 'states of matter'.
1
Do uncharged particles attract or repel each other?
Particles always attract each other.
Particles always attract each other.
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How do the forces of attraction and collision determine the state of matter?
Solids exist when the attraction between particles is greater than the forces involved in collisions. Gases exist when the attraction between particles is less than the forces involved in collisions.
Solids exist when the attraction between particles is greater than the forces involved in collisions. Gases exist when the attraction between particles is less than the forces involved in collisions.
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Why are liquids able to pour and take the shape of their containers?
Liquids can pour and take the shape of their container because particles are able to change places with each other. This is what causes the lack of a pattern.
Liquids can pour and take the shape of their container because particles are able to change places with each other. This is what causes the lack of a pattern.
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What effect does energy have on the forces of attraction during melting?
Liquids exists when some particles temporarily get enough energy to over come the forces of attraction with its neighbour and so change places with each other.
Liquids exist when some particles temporarily get enough energy to over come the forces of attraction with its neighbour and so change places with each other.
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How does the mass of water change as an ice cube melts?
The mass of water stays the same as an ice cube melts.
The mass of water increases as an ice cube melts.
The mass of water decreases as an ice cube melts.
The change in mass of water is random as an ice cube melts.
Make a prediction of the change in mass when an Ice cube melts. Develop into an explained hypothesis.
1
What does the term 'conservation of mass' mean?
Particles can not be created or destroyed.
Particles can not be created or destroyed.
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Why does the mass change during evaporation?
Although there are no particles destroyed during evaporation, once a gas the particle can not be measured by the balance.
There is a conservation of material and of mass for physical processes ie: in melting, freezing, evaporation, sublimation, condensation. NB: Students have not studied chemical reactions yet.
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How can we represent the changes of state in diagram form?
Check for number of particles being constant; Label melting, freezing, evaporation, sublimation, condensation.
Draw a labelled diagram to show the particle arrangement for a material sample as a solid, liquid and gas. Like: http://www.chemistry.wustl.edu/~edudev/LabTutorials/Thermochem/images/SolLiqGas.jpg Check for number of particles being constant. Label melting, freezing, evaporation, sublimation, condensation.
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What is internal energy?
The energy of the particles in a material is called 'internal energy'.
The energy of the particles in a material is called 'internal energy'.
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What type of energy do particles gain when they are heated?
Particles gain kinetic (movement) energy when they are heated.
When particles are given heat energy they move faster, this because they gain kinetic (movement) energy.
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How does the internal energy of a material change as state changes?
A change of state from solid to liquid, liquid to gas or solid to gas requires an increase of the internal energy of the material.
A change of state from solid to liquid, liquid to gas or solid to gas requires an increase of the internal energy of the material.
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Why does the temperature of water not increase during melting and evaporation?
An increase of the internal energy of the material does not always result in a increase in temperature. Some energy is used in order to change state.
An increase of the internal energy of the material does not always result in a increase in temperature. Some energy is used in order to change state.
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What are there more of, chemicals or elements?
There are more chemicals than elements.
There are millions of chemicals in the world.
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What experiments did John Dalton carry out?
John Dalton did experiments to break down chemicals until they could not be split any further.
During the 1800s, John Dalton did experiments to break down chemicals until they could not be split any further.
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What are chemicals that can not be split into other chemicals called?
Chemicals that do not split into other chemicals are known as elements.
Dalton found some chemicals do not split into other chemicals, these are known as elements.
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What is an element made of?
An element is made of only one type of particle.
Elements are made of only one type of particle.
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What determines the element?
The type of particle determines the element. Each element has a unique number of protons.
The type of particle determines the element (chemical).
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What are chemicals called that are made of more than one element chemically bonded together?
Chemicals made of more than element chemically bonded are known as compounds.
Dalton found some chemical do split into other chemicals, these are known as compounds.
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What is a compound made up of?
Compounds are made up of more than one type of particle.
Compounds are made up of more than one type of particles.
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What did Dalton find out when he split compounds?
Dalton found compounds always split into the same proportions.
Dalton found compounds always split into the same proportions.
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How many elements are there and where can we find this list?
There are only around 100 types of atoms (elements) to make up the millions of chemicals.
There are only around 100 types of atoms (elements) to make up the millions of chemicals.
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What is an atom?
Atom is the smallest part of an element.
Atoms are the smallest part of a chemical, and can not be split chemically.
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What is a molecule?
Molecules are atoms that are bonded together.
Groups of bonded atoms are called Molecules.
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What is an element?
A chemical made up of only one type of atom.
Elements are made up of only one type of atom.
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What is a compound?
Compounds are made up of more than one type of atom, in a fixed combination.
Compounds are made up of more than one type of atom, in a fixed combination.
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What is a mixture?
A Mixture is a collection of different particles in the same place.
A Mixture is a collection of different particles in the same place.
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How do we represent chemicals universally?
chemical symbols and formulae for elements and compounds
Each element has a chemical symbol.
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What rules apply to all chemical symbols?
Some chemical symbols consist of two letters (as there are more than 26 elements). Chemical symbols start with a capital letter.
Some chemical symbols consist of two letters (as there are more than 26 elements). Chemical symbols start with a capital letter.
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What does the chemical formulae of a compound show?
Compounds have chemical formulae which show the elements in the compound.
Compounds have chemical formulae which show the elements in the compound.
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How can you tell a compound from the formula of it?
Compounds have chemical formulae with more than one capital letter in.
Compounds have chemical formulae with more than one capital letter in.
0
How can you tell an element from the formula of it?
Elements have chemical formulae with only one capital letter in.
Elements have chemical formulae with only one capital letter in.
0
How can we identify the number of elements in a compound?
We identify the number of elements in a compound by counting the number capital letters in the formulae.
Students can identify the number of elements in a compound from its formulae.
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Identify the number of element and atoms in the following formulae: CO Co NaOH MgO MgSO4 CaCO3 CaCl What are the elements in the above formulae?
CO 2 atoms, 2 elements. NaOH 4 atoms, 3 elements. MgO 2 atoms, 2 elements. MgSO4 6 atoms, 3 elements. CaCO3 5 atoms, 3 elements. CaCl 2 atoms, two elements. CO2 carbon and oxygen. NaOH sodium, oxygen and hydrogen. MgO magnesium and oxygen. MgSO4 magnesium, sulfur and oxygen. CaCO3 calcium, carbon and oxygen. CaCl calcium and chlorine.
Students can identify the number of atoms in a compound from its formulae.
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How can you represent a mixture in writing?
Mixture formulae have a plus sign in.
Mixture 'formulae' have a plus sign in.
0
What is the conservation of mass?
conservation of mass changes of state and chemical reactions
There is no change of mass during a change of state as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
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What happens to the mass of particles in a chemical reaction?
There is no change of mass during chemical reactions as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
There is no change of mass during chemical reactions as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
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What is a chemical reaction?
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
0
What is Brownian motion?
Brownian motion in gases is the proof of particles too small to see. The random motion of the large particle can only be explained by smaller particles hitting it.
Brownian motion in gases is the proof of particles too small to see. The random motion of the large particle can only be explained by smaller particles hitting it.
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What is a 'pure substance'?
the concept of a pure substance
A pure substance contains only what it is labelled as. It is not contaminated with something unexpected eg food grade chemicals.
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What is a trace substance?
A trace substance is chemical found in very small amounts. These may make substances impure.
A trace substance is chemical found in very small amounts. These may make substances impure.
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How can we identify a pure substance from an impure?
the identification of pure substances
Pure substances can be identified by being unable to separate them.
0
How can we separate salt from sand?
simple techniques for separating mixtures: filtration, evaporation, distillation and chromatography
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: filtration, evaporation.
0
What is filtration?
Filtration separates by size of particle, normally solid and liquid.
Filtration separates by size of particle, normally solid and liquid.
0
What is a residue?
The solid left behind in the filter is called the residue.
The solid left behind in the filter is called the residue.
0
What is a filtrate?
The liquid that has passed through the filter is called the filtrate.
The liquid that has passed through the filter is called the filtrate.
0
What allows us to separate substances through evaporation?
Evaporation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the higher point.
Evaporation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the higher point.
0
What is distillation?
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: Distillation.
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: Distillation.
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How does distillation work?
Distillation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the lower point.
Distillation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the lower point.
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What is chromatography?
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: chromotography.
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: chromotography.
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Why would we use chromatography to identify a type of sweet?
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds.
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds.
0
What does soluble mean?
If a solid can dissolve in particular liquid then it is know as 'soluble'.
If a solid can dissolve in particular liquid then it is know as 'soluble'.
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What does insoluble mean?
If a solid cannot dissolve in particular liquid then it is know as 'insoluble'
If a solid cannot dissolve in particular liquid then it is know as 'insoluble'
0
What is a solution?
Solutions are mixtures of solids and liquids, in which the solid breaks down and behaves like a liquid.
Solutions are mixtures of solids and liquids, in which the solid breaks down and behaves like a liquid.
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What is the solid that dissolves in a liquid called?
The solid added is called the solute.
The solid added is called the solute.
0
What is the liquid a solid dissolves into called?
The liquid added is called the solvent.
The liquid added is called the solvent.
0
What happens to the solute particles when they dissolve?
The large solute (solid) crystal break down into smaller molecules which fit between the particles of the solvent.
The large solute (solid) crystal break down into smaller molecules which fit between the particles of the solvent.
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How do the particles behave once they have dissolved?
The solid can now behave like a liquid as the small molecules can move relative to each other.
The solid can now behave like a liquid as the small molecules can move relative to each other.
0
What does it mean when a solution is saturated?
A saturated solution is one that can not dissolve any more solute.
A saturated solution is one that can not dissolve any more solute.
0
In terms of particles, why does a solution become saturated?
When all the gaps between particles are full, no more solute can be dissolved.
When all the gaps between particles are full, no more solute can be dissolved.
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Why does increasing the temperature increase the amount of solute that can dissolve?
Increasing the temperature of the solvent, increases the speed the particles collide, creating bigger gaps. This allows more solute to dissolve in the solvent.
Increasing the temperature of the solvent, increases the speed the particles collide, creating bigger gaps. This allows more solute to dissolve in the solvent.
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What is solubility?
Solubility is a measure of how much solute can be dissolved in a solvent.
Solubility is a measure of how much solute can be dissolved in a solvent.
0
What is concentration?
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
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What is diffusion?
diffusion in liquids and gases driven by differences in concentration
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
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What happens to the particles in a fluid?
diffusion in terms of the particle model
Particles in a fluid are always moving.
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Why do particles move from an area where there are more to where ther
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
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What is a physical change?
Physical changes are changes of state.
Physical changes are changes of state.
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What happens to the particles in a physical change?
the difference between chemical and physical changes
Physical changes occur when particles are rearranged, but not change themselves.
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When do chemical changes occur?
Chemical changes occur when the make up of individual particles change.
Chemical changes occur when the make up of individual particles change.
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What happens to the atoms in a chemical reaction?
chemical reactions as the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
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What happens to atoms in chemical reactions?
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
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What are reactants?
Chemicals that react are call Reactants.
Chemicals that react are call Reactants.
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What are products?
Chemicals that are produce are call Products.
Chemicals that are produce are call Products.
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What is the difference between a chemical and a physical change?
The difference between chemical and physical changes.
The difference between chemical and physical changes.
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What happens to atoms in chemical reactions
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
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What 4 things tell us a chemical reaction has occurred?
Learn the signs of chemical reactions: 1. Change of color 2. Formation of gas 3. Formation of precipitate 4. Change of temperature (energy released)
Learn the signs of chemical reactions: 1. Change of colour 2. Formation of gas 3. Formation of precipitate 4. Change of temperature (energy released)
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How do we know that there is conservation of mass in a chemical reaction?
There is a 'Conservation of mass' during chemical reactions as atoms are rearranged not destroyed.
There is a 'Conservation of mass' during chemical reactions as atoms are rearranged not destroyed.
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What is combustion?
Combustion is the chemical reaction of burning.
Combustion is the chemical reaction of burning.
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What are the products and reactants in combustion?
During combustion the fuel joins with oxygen.
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What is an oxidation reaction?
Combustion is an oxidation reaction.
Combustion is an oxidation reaction.
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What type of chemical reaction is rusting?
Rusting is another example of an oxidation reaction
Rusting is another example of an oxidation reaction
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What reaction causes metals to tarnish?
Tarnish of metals is oxidation.
Tarnish of metals is oxidation.
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What happens in an exothermic reaction?
Exothermic chemical reactions give out heat, warming the surroundings. They feel hot.
Exothermic chemical reactions give out heat, warming the surroundings. They feel hot.
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What happens in an endothermic reaction?
Endothermic chemical reactions take in heat, cooling the surroundings. They feel cold.
Endothermic chemical reactions take in heat, cooling the surroundings. They feel cold.
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What happens in a thermal decomposition?
In thermal decomposition reactions, large molecules break down into smaller molecules when heated.
In thermal decomposition reactions, large molecules break down into smaller molecules when heated.
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What happens in a displacement reaction?
In a displacement reaction, a more reactive chemical will take the place of less reactive chemical.
In a displacement reaction, a more reactive chemical will take the place of less reactive chemical.
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What is the name of a reaction between an acid and an alkali?
A neutralisation reaction.
defining acids and alkalis in terms of neutralisation reactions
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What do we use the pH scale for?
The pH scale is used for measuring acidity/alkalinity; and indicators
the pH scale for measuring acidity/alkalinity; and indicators
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What is a catalyst and what do they do in a reaction?
Catalysts speed up a reaction without being used up themselves.
Catalysts speed up a reaction without being used up themselves.
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Can earthquakes and volcanoes happen anywhere on the Earth?
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions only happen in certain places on Earth.
Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions only happen in certain places on Earth.
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What are tectonic plates?
Tectonic plates are pieces that the Earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle are split into.
Tectonic plates are pieces that the Earth's crust is split into.
Tectonic plates are pieces that the upper part of the mantle is split into.
Tectonic plates are pieces that the Earth's crust and the whole mantle are split into.
The Earth's crust and the upper part of the mantle are cracked into a number of large pieces (tectonic plates).
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Which is the thinnest layer out of the crust, mantle, outer core and inner core?
The crust is relatively very thin.
The crust is relatively very thin.
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What 3 forms of evidence did Alfred Wegener base his theory of crustal movement on?
Alfred Wegener theory of crustal movement (continental drift) based on: - Matched coastlines of Africa and S.America, - Matched rock formations, - Common fossils.
Alfred Wegener observed - Matched coastlines of Africa and S.America, - Matched rock formations, - Common fossils.
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What was Alfred Wegener's explanation for the forms of evidence?
This could be explained if the continents drifted apart.
This could be explained if the continents drifted apart.
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Why was Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift not generally accepted?
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he couldn't explain how it could happen.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he had no evidence.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he had little evidence.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because there is lots of evidence against it.
Alfred Wegener theory of crustal movement (continental drift) was not generally accepted for many years because he couldn't explain how it could happen. We now believe...
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What moves the tectonic plates?
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents within the Earth’s mantle. The plates to move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents within the Earth’s mantle. The plates move at relative speeds of a few metres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by ocean currents. The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents in the atmosphere. The plates move at relative speeds of a few metres per year.
Convection currents within the Earth's mantle cause the plates.
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Where does the energy come from to cause the movement of the tectonic plates?
The heat energy from natural radioactive processes in the core causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural radioactive processes in the mantle causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural chemical processes in the core causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural chemical processes in the mantle causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy drives convection currents in the mantle, through the changing density (particle movement) of the heated mantle.
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What creates the heat in the core?
The heat in the core is released by natural radioactive processes.
The heat in the core is released by natural radioactive processes.
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What is the energy transform occurring in the core?
Nuclear to Heat
Gravitational to Heat
Chemical to Heat
Elastic to Heat
Nuclear energy is transformed into heat energy.
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How fast do the plates move on average?
The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
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What do the sudden movements of the tectonic plates cause?
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes only.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause volcanic eruptions only.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes and tidal waves.
The movements can be sudden and disastrous. Earthquakes and / or volcanic eruptions occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates.
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Starting at the center, what are the layers that make up the Earth?
The Earth consists of a core, mantle and crust.
The Earth consists of a crust, mantle and core.
The Earth consists of a mantle, a core and crust.
The Earth consists of a mantle, crust and core.
The Earth consists of a core, mantle and crust, and is surrounded by the atmosphere.
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What are the relative sizes of the core and mantle in how much of the diameter of the Earth they take up?
The Core is about half the diameter of the Earth, with the Mantle making up the other half.
The Core is about half the diameter of the Earth, with the Mantle making up the other half.
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How are P and S waves used to discover what the inner Earth is like?
DESIRABLE: Our knowledge of the structure of the Earth comes mainly from studying how the shockwaves from earthquakes (seismic waves) travel through it. Earthquakes produce two types of waves that can travel through the Earth: - Longitudinal faster travelling Primary, P (pressure) waves, which move through liquids as well as solids; - Transverse slower travelling Secondary, S waves, which travel only through solids. The S-wave shadow is what give rise to the idea of a core. http://www.mrcorfe.com/KS4/Edexcel/Physics/P1-11-NowYouSeeIt/EarthStructure.php
DESIRABLE: Our knowledge of the structure of the Earth comes mainly from studying how the shockwaves from earthquakes (seismic waves) travel through it. Earthquakes produce two types of waves that can travel through the Earth: - Longitudinal faster travelling Primary, P (pressure) waves, which move through liquids as well as solids; - Transverse slower travelling Secondary, S waves, which travel only through solids. The S-wave shadow is what give rise to the idea of a core. http://www.mrcorfe.com/KS4/Edexcel/Physics/P1-11-NowYouSeeIt/EarthStructure.php
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What is the Earth mainly composed of?
The Earth is composed of mainly of: - iron - oxygen - silicon - magnesium
The Earth is composed of mainly of: - iron - oxygen - silicon - tungsten
The Earth is composed of mainly of: - iron - argon - silicon - magnesium
The Earth is composed of mainly of: - iron - argon - silicon - tungsten
The Earth is composed of mainly of: - iron (32.1%), - oxygen (30.1%), - silicon (15.1%), - magnesium (13.9%).
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What is the Earth's core mainly composed of?
The Earth's core is composed of mainly of iron with smaller amounts of nickel.
The Earth's core is composed of mainly of nickel with smaller amounts of iron.
The Earth's core is composed of mainly of oxygen with smaller amounts of nitrogen.
The Earth's core is composed of mainly of nitrogen with smaller amounts of oxygen.
The Earth's core is composed of mainly of iron (88.8%) with smaller amounts of nickel (5.8%).
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What is the Earth's crust mainly made up of?
The Earth's crust is composed of mainly of oxygen, chemically locked up in rocks.
The Earth's crust is composed of mainly of iron,
The Earth's crust is composed of mainly of nickle,
The Earth's crust is composed of mainly of nitrogen,
The Earth's crust is composed of mainly of oxygen (47%), chemically locked up in rocks. The most common of which are Silica, Silicon Dioxide (54%) and Alumina, Aluminum oxide (16%). - Something to do with revising Elements and compounds.
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What type of chemical is the air?
The atmosphere is composed of mainly nitrogen and oxygen with small proportions of various other gases.
The atmosphere is composed of mainly nitrogen and oxygen.
The atmosphere is composed of mainly iron and nickle.
The atmosphere is composed of mainly iron and nickle with small proportions of various gases.
The air in the atmosphere is a mixture.
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What is the atmosphere composed of?
The atmosphere is composed of: - about four-fifths nitrogen (80%) - about one-fifth oxygen (20%) - small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
The atmosphere is composed of: - about four-fifths nitrogen (80%) - about one-fifth oxygen (20%) - small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
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What is the test for oxygen gas?
The gas test for oxygen is it relights a glowing spill.
The gas test for oxygen is it turns lime water cloudy.
The gas test for oxygen is it makes a squeaky pop when lit.
The gas test for oxygen is it puts out a burning spill.
The gas test for oxygen is it relights a glowing spill.
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What is the test for carbon dioxide?
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it turns lime water cloudy.
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it relights a glowing spill.
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it makes a squeaky pop when lit.
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it puts out a burning spill.
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it turns lime water cloudy.
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What is the test for hydrogen gas?
The gas test for hydrogen is it makes a squeaky pop when lit.
The gas test for hydrogen is it relights a glowing spill.
The gas test for hydrogen is it turns lime water cloudy.
The gas test for carbon dioxide is it puts out a burning spill.
The gas test for hydrogen is it makes a squeaky pop when lit.
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What process maintains the levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere?
The levels in the atmosphere are maintained by photosynthesis.
The levels in the atmosphere are maintained by combustion.
The levels in the atmosphere are maintained by decomposition.
The levels in the atmosphere are maintained by evaporation.
The oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere are maintained by photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae.
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Why is photosynthesis important?
the dependence of almost all life on Earth on the ability of photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, to use sunlight in photosynthesis to build organic molecules that are an essential energy store and to maintain levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere - Energy transfer from sun to plant, chloroplast transform atoms rearranged (conserved in reaction). Oxygen we need for respiration = glucose.
Photosynthetic organisms, such as plants and algae, use sunlight in photosynthesis to build organic molecules that are an essential energy store.
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Why is oxygen important in the atmosphere?
Oxygen is need for respiration which releases energy from glucose. This is essential for all life. Therefore all life depends on the energy from the sun and the photosynthetic
Oxygen is need for respiration which releases energy from glucose. This is essential for all life. Therefore all life depends on the energy from the sun and the photosynthetic
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Which gas is used as a sign of life on other planets?
Oxygen is a sign that life is on an other planet.
Nitrogen is a sign that life is on an other planet.
Carbon dioxide is a sign that life is on an other planet.
Methane is a sign that life is on an other planet.
In the search for life on other planets, looking for oxygen is a sign that life is on the planet.
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What are the different physical and chemical properties that can vary?
the varying physical and chemical properties of different elements - Melting points. - Boiling points. - Densities. - Hardness. - Reactivity.
the varying physical and chemical properties of different elements - Melting points. - Boiling points. - Densities. - Hardness. - Reactivity.
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How did Mendeleev decide where to put things in the periodic table?
That repeating properties were used to form the groups in the Mendeleev periodic table.
That repeating properties were used to form the groups in the Mendeleev periodic table.
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How does the reactivity change as you go down Group one?
The reactivity of elements increases as group one is descended in the periodic table.
The reactivity of elements increases as group one is descended in the periodic table.
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How does the reactivity of group 7 elements change as you ascend the group?
The reactivity of elements increases as group seven is ascended in the periodic table.
The reactivity of elements increases as group seven is ascended in the periodic table.
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How reactive are group zero elements?
Group zero do not react.
Group zero do not react.
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How does the placement of elements on the periodic table affect its properties?
The closer elements are to each other on the periodic table, the more likely they are to react in a similar way.
The closer elements are to each other on the periodic table, the more likely they are to react in a similar way.
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What are the rows in the periodic table called?
The rows in the periodic table are called periods.
The rows in the periodic table are called periods.
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What are the columns in the periodic table called?
The columns in the periodic table are called groups
The columns in the periodic table are called groups
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Where can metals be found in the periodic table?
Metals are found to the lower left on the periodic table.
Metals are found to the lower left on the periodic table.
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Where can non-metals be found in the periodic table?
Nonmetals are found to the upper right on the periodic table.
Nonmetals are found to the upper right on the periodic table.
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What is the most abundant type of element on the periodic table?
Metals make up the majority of the elements on the periodic table.
Metals make up the majority of the elements on the periodic table.
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What are the properties of metals?
The properties of metals include: - Lustrous (shiny) - Sonorous (makes a ringing sound) - Hard. - High density (are heavy for their size) - High tensile strength (resist being stretched) - High melting and boiling points. - Good conductors of heat and electricity.
The properties of metals include: - Lustrous (shiny) - Sonorous (makes a ringing sound) - Hard. - High density (are heavy for their size) - High tensile strength (resist being stretched) - High melting and boiling points. - Good conductors of heat and electricity.
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What are the properties of non-metals?
The properties of non-metals include: - Low melting and boiling points. - Insulators of
The properties of non-metals include: - Low melting and boiling points. - Insulators of
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What are the products when you react an acid with a metal?
reactions of acids with metals to produce a salt plus hydrogen
reactions of acids with metals to produce a salt plus hydrogen
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What are the products when you react an acid with an alkali?
reactions of acids with alkalis to produce a salt plus water
reactions of acids with alkalis to produce a salt plus water
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What is formed when metal oxides dissolve?
Metal oxides dissolve to form alkali solutions.
Metal oxides dissolve to form alkali solutions.
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What is formed when non-metal oxides dissolve?
Non-metal oxides dissolve to form acid solutions.
Non-metal oxides dissolve to form acid solutions.
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How can we identify types of oxides?
Identify types of oxides by testing pH
Identify types of oxides by testing pH
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When Iron Sulfide mixes with Lead Nitrate, what happens?
There is a reaction; Lead Sulfide and Iron Nitrate are produced.
Predict the outcome of reactions with metals and metal salt solutions given the reactivity series.
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What happens in a displacement reaction?
In displacement reactions the more reactive metal displaces (takes the place) of the less reactive metal.
In displacement reactions the more reactive metal displaces (takes the place) of the less reactive metal.
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What is definition of a rate?
A rate is how quickly something happens / how much in a bit of time.
Metals will react with acid at different rates.
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What gas is produced when a metal reacts with an acid?
When Metals react with acid with they produce (a salt and) hydrogen gas.
When Metals react with acid with they produce (a salt and) hydrogen gas.
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What do all acids contain?
Acids contain hydrogen (ions) particles.
Acids contain hydrogen (ions) particles.
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What is the reactivity series?
An order of metals based on their reactivity (how quickly / strongly they react).
Metals can be put into order of reactivity called the 'the reactivity series'
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Other than a gas, what is produced when an acid reacts with a metal?
When Metals react with acid with they produce a salt (and hydrogen gas).
When Metals react with acid with they produce a salt (and hydrogen gas).
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Draw particle diagrams for a metal reacting with an acid.
- Three different types of particle. Before: - Metal particle by itself - Hydrogen particle with another particle After: - Metal with other particle - Hydrogen paricle by itself. - Hydrogen in pairs
Draw particle diagrams for metals reacting with acid.
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Write a word equation for metals reacting with acid.
Format: Metal Acid -> Salt Hydrogen Where the salt has Metal name and then the non metal ion from the acid. eg Iron Hydrochloric acid -> Iron Chloride Hydrogen Gas
Write word equations for metals reacting with acid.
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Write a symbol equation for metals reacting with acid.
eg Fe HCl -> FeCl H Balanced equations for bonus mark. Correct formula second bonus mark
Write symbol equations for metals reacting with acid.
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Which two non-metal elements are often added to the reactivity series?
Carbon and Hydrogen are often be added to the reactivity series.
Carbon and Hydrogen are often added to the reactivity series for comparison.
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Why don't we find pure metals that are more reactive than hydrogen in the ground?
The metal displaces the hydrogen, found in ground water, to produce metal oxides.
Metals more reactive than hydrogen will react with water as they will displace the hydrogen forming metal oxides.
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What do we call rocks that have significant amounts of metal compounds in?
The rocks that have significant amounts of metal oxides in are known as ores.
The rocks that have significant amounts of metal oxides in are known as ores.
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What needs to be done to get useable metals?
Metal in metal oxides needs to be chemical separated from the oxygen.
In order to obtain useable metal it needs to be chemically separated from the oxygen.
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What type of furnace is used to produce iron?
The blast furnace is used to produce Iron from iron oxide.
The blast furnace is used to obtaining some metals from metal oxides using carbon. eg Iron from iron oxide.
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What is added to to the furnace to remove the oxygen from the ore?
Carbon is added to blast furnace remove the oxygen from the ore.
Carbon is more reactive than iron so the carbon displaces the iron to form carbon dioxide leaving the iron by itself.
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What determines if carbon can displace the metal?
Carbon can only displace metals that are less reactive than itself.
Carbon can only displace metals that are less reactive than itself.
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Draw a labelled diagram to show how to collect gas over water.
- Up turned measuring cylinder / test tube - In tub of water - Delivery tube from reaction to under measuring cylinder - Reaction in a conical flask.
Gas can be collected over water using a delivery tube.
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What is a better method to measure the amount of gas produced by a reaction?
A better method to measure the volume of gas produced by a reaction is to use a gas syringe.
Gas can be collected using a gas syringe. This is an improved method to measure the volume of gas.
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How are ceramic objects made?
Ceramic materials are solids made by baking a starting material in a very hot oven or kiln.
Ceramic materials are solids made by baking a starting material like clay, in a very hot oven or kiln.
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Give two examples of a ceramic material.
Ceramic materials include: Pottery; Bricks; Glass; Cement; Diamond
Ceramic materials include: Pottery; Bricks; Glass; Cement; Diamond
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Ceramic materials are hard,what does this mean?
Ceramic materials are hard, because they are not easy to scratch /
Ceramic materials are hard, so not easy to scratch.
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How are ceramics used to be at their strongest?
Ceramic materials are strong under compression (being squashed).
Ceramic materials are strong under compression.
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Ceramics are brittle. What does this mean?
Ceramics are brittle, because they can not absorb energy quickly or bend without breaking
Ceramics are brittle.
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How are metals used to be at their strongest?
Metals are in tension (being stretched).
Metals have a high Tensile Strength
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Metals are Sonorous. What does this mean?
Metals are Sonorous because they make a ringing sound when struck.
Metals are Sonorous
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Metals are malleable. What does this mean?
Metals are malleable because they can be hammered into shape.
Metals are malleable
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Metals are ductile. What does this mean?
Metals are ductile because they can be drawn (stretched) into a tread.
Metals are ductile
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Metals are lustrous. What does this mean?
Metals are lustrous because they are shiny.
Metals are lustrous
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Metals are good conductor. What does this mean?
Metals are good conductor because they allow the flow of heat and/or electricity through it.
Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity.
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What are the general properties of ceramics?
Ceramics have High melting points (so they're heat resistant). Great hardness and strength, Considerable durability (they're long-lasting and hard-wearing) and Low electrical and thermal conductivity (they're good insulators).
These are the general properties of ceramics and metals, but there are exceptions.
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What is the chemistry name for plastics?
Plastics are polymers.
Plastics are polymers.
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What determines how a polymer is used?
The properties of the polymer determine how they are used.
There are many different polymers. Their properties determine how they are used.
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Name four properties of some polymers.
Polymers can be flexible, cheap, electrical insulator, strong, tough resistant to chemicals and generally have a low density.
Polymers can be flexible, cheap, electrical insulator, strong, tough resistant to chemicals and generally have a low density.
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What is a composite material?
Composites are made up of more than type of material.
Composites are made up of more than type of material.
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Why are composites used?
Composites have a mixture of properties from the materials that make them up.
Composites have a mixture of properties from the materials that make them up.
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Explain why reinforced concrete used for bridges?
MARK USING SCIENCE EXPLANATION LADDER
Reinforced concrete is a composite of concrete (ceramic) and metal bars.
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What are glass Reinforced Plastics?
Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) are a composite of glass fibres (ceramic) and a plastic (polymer).
Glass Reinforced Plastics (GRP) are a composite of glass fibres (ceramic) and a plastic (polymer).
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How are particles in a solid arranged?
Particels in a solid are tightly packed, usually in a regular pattern.
Particles in a solid are arranged in a lattice (pattern).
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Do all solids have the particles arranged in the same pattern?
No, different types of solids have their particles arranged in a differnet shaped lattices (patterns).
Different types of solid are have their particles arranged in a differnet shaped lattices (patterns).
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Why are metals malleable and ductile?
Metals are malleable and ductile because their particles are arranged in layers with weak bonds between them.
Metals are malleable and ductile because their particles are arranged in layers with weakish bonds between them. (This is an oversimplification as dislocations and grain boundaries are the true weaknesses)
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What happens to the metals layers when a force is applied?
When a force is applied to the metal layers they slide over each other changing the material's shape.
When a force is applied to the metal layers they slide over each other changing the material's shape.
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Why are metals known as tough?
Metals are tough because when there is a shock of energy, it can be absorbed in the flexibility of these weak bonds.
Metals are tough because when there is a shock of energy, it can be absorbed in the flexibility of these weak bonds.
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Why are ceramics brittle?
Ceramics are brittle because when there is a shock of energy, it can not be absorbed as there is no flexibility in the strong bonds.
Ceramics are brittle because when there is a shock of energy, it can not be absorbed as there is no flexibility in the strong bonds.
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Why are ceramics hard and brittle?
Ceramics are hard and brittle because their particles are held in a lattice shape such as a tetrahedral.
Ceramics are hard and brittle because their particles are held in a lattice shape such as a tetrahedral.
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Why are tetrahedrals strong shapes?
Tetrahedrals are strong shapes as each particle is held in place by triangles of bonds.
Tetrahedrals are strong shapes as each particle is held in place by triangles of bonds.
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What does a strong structure mean?
The strong structure means that particles will not move as much as others so can scratch the softer material. But it also means that a shock of energy can not be absorbed by the bonds as there is no flexibility in the structure.
The strong structure means that particles will not move as much as others so can scratch the softer material. But it also means that a shock of energy can not be absorbed by the bonds as there is no flexibility in the structure.
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How are particels in a polymer arranged?
The particles in polymers are a arranged in chains.
The particles in polymers are a arranged in chains.
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What are the bonds in a polymer like?
The bonds in the chain are very strong, but the force between chains are relatively weak.
The bonds in the chain are very strong, but the force between chains are relatively weak.
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What does the length of a polymer chain affect?
The length of the particle chain affects how the chains interact with each other and so the properties of the polymer.
The length of the particle chain affects how the chains interact with each other and so the properties of the polymer.
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What are the applications of ceramics, polymers and composites?
Ceramics are used in bricks and pottery. Polymers are used in PVC, Lycra,Nylon and polyethene. Composites: waterproof clothing eg; Gore Tex Car wheels.
Application of ceramics, polymers and composites (qualitative)
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Are all rocks the same age?
There are lots of different rocks of all sorts of ages.
There are lots of different rocks of all sorts of ages.
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Where are the oldest rocks found?
The oldest rocks are found in Africa, Canada and Australia.
The oldest rocks are found in Africa, Canada and Australia.
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Where are the youngest rocks on the earth generally found?
The youngest rocks are found around volcanoes.
The youngest rocks are found around volcanoes.
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Why has the amount of rock material on the earth remained fairly constant since its formation?
No new material gained or lost from the planet (with the exception of the small number of meteorites that have collided with the planet)
There has been no new rock material added to the earth since it was created apart from a small amount of meteorites.
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What materials are new rocks made from?
Those recycled by the earth over its existence.
New rocks are made from recycled material.
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What type of rocks are formed when molten rock freezes?
Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks are formed when molten rocks freeze.
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Describe the structure of particles in an igneous rock
Particles in an igneous rock are fixed in a lattice, the reason why the rocks hold their shape.
When frozen, the particles in the rocks are fixed in a lattice, that is why the rocks hold their shape.
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Solids are made up of crystals. What are crystals?
Crystals are regions of a single lattice orientation.
Solids are made up of crystals. Crystals are regions of a single lattice orientation.
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How does the rate at which something freezes affect the size of the crystals it contains?
The slower the rate of freezing, the greater the size of the crystals that are formed within that structure.
When solids freeze quickly the crystals are small.
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Why are the crystals formed larger when an object freezes more slowly?
The crystals are large because the particles have more time to line up before freezing.
The crystals are large because the particles have more time to line up before freezing.
0
Why are the crystals formed smaller when an object freezes quickly?
The crystals are small because the particles have less time to line up before freezing.
The crystals are small because the particles have less time to line up before freezing.
0
What size crystals are formed when solids freeze slowly?
When solids freeze slowly the crystals are large.
When solids freeze slowly the crystals are large.
0
What is the impact on the structure of an igneous rock when it forms slowly under the ground?
Due to it cooling slowly, it will contain large crystals.
When igneous rocks are formed under the ground they cool slowly so the crystals are large.
0
What is the impact on the structure of an igneous rock when it forms above the ground or in water, resulting in tit cooling rapidly?
Due to it cooling quickly, it will contain small crystals.
When igneous rocks are formed above ground or in water they cool quickly so the crystals are small.
0
Does the size of crystals affect the properties of a rock?
The size of crystals affects some of the properties of the rock.
The size of crystals affects some of the properties of the rock.
0
What is weathering?
Weathering is breaking up of rock where it stands.
Weathering is breaking up of rock where it stands.
0
Over time, what happens to rocks as they are weathered?
Rocks are broken down into increasing smaller particles
Rocks are broken down into increasing smaller particles: Gravel; Sand; Silt; Clay
0
What is chemical weathering?
Chemical weathering is the weathering of rocks caused by chemicals. For example, rainwater is naturally slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in it. Minerals in rocks may react with the rainwater, causing the rock to be weathered.
Weathering can be chemical weathering, in which rocks are broken down when the particles that make them up are changed.
0
What is physical weathering?
Physical weathering of rocks occurs when they are broken down, but the particles that make them up are not chemically changed.
Weathering can be physical weathering, in which rocks are broken down when the particles that make them up are not changed. But the forces between the particles are overcome to separate them into small pieces of rock.
0
How are sedimentary rocks formed?
Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (little pieces of weathered rock) is laid down in layers under water and then compressed by layers above. The water between the sediment is squeezed out and the sediment bonds together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (little pieces of weathered rock) is laid down in layers under water and then compressed by layers above. The water between the sediment is squeezed out and the sediment bonds together.
0
What may occur when organisms fall into the sediment of a forming rock?
If organisms fall into the sediment then the rock can take the shape of the organism. These formations are fossils.
If organisms fall into the sediment then the rock can take the shape of the organism. These formations are fossils.
0
What causes the formation of a metamorphic rock?
Metamorphic rocks are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are heated and under great pressure.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are heated under great pressure.
0
Where are the resources we rely upon extracted from?
All resources we use come from come from the Earth's crust or the atmosphere.
All resources come form come from the Earth's crust or the atmosphere.
0
Why is coal a better source of energy than wood?
Coal contains more energy per kilogram than wood as it is a concentrated form of wood without moisture in.
Coal contains more energy per kilogram than wood as it is a concentrated form of wood without moisture in.
0
How is crude oil formed?
Crude oil (and natural gas) is formed when sea creatures (mainly microscopic) are compressed under layers of sediment
Crude oil (and natural gas) is formed when sea creatures (mainly microscopic) are compressed under layers of sediment.
0
How is coal formed?
Coal is a sedimentary rock formed when trees and plants are compressed under layers of sediment. (The highest grade coal, Anthracite, is actually metamorphic)
Coal is a sedimentary rock formed when trees and plants are compressed under layers of sediment. (The highest grade coal, Anthracite, is actually metamorphic)
0
What uses do we have for crude oil?
Crude oil can be processed into fuels, chemicals and plastics.
Crude oil can be processed into fuels, chemicals and plastics.
0
How are most metals obtained from the Earth's crust?
Most metals are dug up from the earths crust in the form of ores.
Metals are dug up from the earth in the form of ores.
0
What is a ceramic material?
Ceramics are made from muds, dug up from the Earth's crust.
Ceramics are made from muds that are dug up from the earth
0
What is it important that we recycle?
Resources on the Earth are limited, It's important that the way we behave now does not make life difficult or impossible for future generations.
the efficacy of recycling
0
What are the impacts on the Earth of increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere?
The result of increasing carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere will lead to global warming (increase of the Earth's average surface temperature). This will lead to changes in weather patterns, causing drought in some places and flooding in others. Also polar ice caps will melt, raising sea levels and causing increased coastal erosion and flooding of low-lying land, including land where major cities lie.
the production of carbon dioxide by human activity and the impact on climate
0
The emissions of which gases result in the formation of acid rain?
Acid rain is most caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
ENQUIRY: Planning Aim: To find out how the concentration of acid (rain) affects the rate of reaction with marble chips
0
How can you test for the presence of carbon dioxide gas?
Bubble the gas through limewater. If carbon dioxide is present then it will turn cloudy.
The test for carbon dioxide is to bubble the gas through lime water. If it turns cloudy this is a positive result.
0
Are the Earth's resources infinite?
The Earth's resources are not infinite, they are limited.
Earth as a source of limited resources
0
Required Practical 2 - Titrations (Chemistry only) (AT Skills 1,8)
Required Practical 2 - Titrations (chemistry only) (AT skills 1,8)
0
When do you use the Big Idea of Forces?
When something: Changes Speed; Changes Direction; Changes Shape.
When something happens.
When something dependents on something else.
When something is made of matter (stuff); When there is a chemical reaction.
Forces
1
When do you use the Big Idea of Particles?
When something is made of matter (stuff); When there is a chemical reaction.
When something: Changes Speed; Changes Direction; Changes Shape.
When something happens.
When something is: living; was once living; or produced by something living.
Particles
1
When do you use the Big Idea of Cells?
When something is: living; was once living; or produced by something living.
When something is made of matter (stuff); When there is a chemical reaction.
When something: Changes Speed; Changes Direction; Changes Shape.
When something dependents on something else.
Cells
1
When do you use the Big Idea of Energy?
When something happens.
When something is: living; was once living; or produced by something living.
When something is made of matter (stuff); When there is a chemical reaction.
When something: Changes Speed; Changes Direction; Changes Shape.
Energy
1
When do you use the Big Idea of Interdependence?
When something depends on something else.
When something happens.
When something is: living; was once living; or produced by something living.
When something: Changes Speed; Changes Direction; Changes Shape.
Interdependence
1
What is a force?
Forces can be either pushes or pulls, which can be combined to form a twist.
Forces can be either pushes or pulls, which can be combined to form a twist.
0
What do we use force arrows for? How do we draw them?
Force arrows in free body diagrams are used to show the direction of forces and the size of the force by its length or label. Force arrows have a solid arrow head.
Force arrows in free body diagrams are used to show the direction of forces and the size of the force by its length or label. Force arrows have a solid arrow head.
0
What do we measure forces in? What symbol can we use?
Forces are measured in newtons with the symbol 'N'.
Forces are measured in newtons with the symbol 'N'.
0
What is one Newton equivalent to?
A newton is the weight of a small apple.
A newton is the weight of a small apple.
0
What happens if forces are combined?
Forces can be combined to help or cancel each other.
Forces can be combined to help or cancel each other.
0
How do we calculate whether forces are balanced or unbalanced? How can we tell if a force is negative? What is the 'resultant force'?
Adding forces in 1 dimension, allows to calculate whether forces are balanced or unbalanced. Forces in the a backwards direction are considered negative. The combined force is is called the 'Resultant force' and is the result of adding all the forces together.
Adding forces in 1 dimension, allows to calculate whether forces are balanced or unbalanced. Forces in the a backwards direction are considered negative. The combined force is is called the 'Resultant force' and is the result of adding all the forces together.
0
What is momentum? Pick the most correct answer.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving with the same speed and direction.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to stay not moving.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving as at the same speed only.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving in the same direction only.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving as it was.
1
How can we change momentum?
It takes unbalanced forces to change the momentum of an object.
It takes an acceleration to change the momentum of an object.
It takes an inertia to change the momentum of an object.
It takes a balanced forces to change the momentum of an object.
It takes a force to change the momentum of an object.
1
Why do we need unbalanced forces?
Unbalanced forces being needed to cause objects to: - stop or start moving, - change their speed, - direction of motion These are all forms of acceleration (qualitative only).
Unbalanced forces are needed to cause objects to: - stop or start moving, - change their speed, - direction of motion These are all forms of acceleration (qualitative only).
0
What is acceleration dependent on?
The acceleration is in the direction of resultant force and the speed of the change is dependent on the size of the force.
The acceleration is in the direction of resultant force and the speed of the change is dependent on the size of the force.
0
How can we cause friction?
Rubbing causes friction between surfaces.
Rubbing causes friction between surfaces.
0
What does the amount of friction depend on?
The amount of friction depends on the roughness of the surfaces.
The amount of friction depends on the weight of an object.
The amount of friction depends on the width of the surfaces.
The amount of friction depends on the width of an object.
The amount of friction depends on the roughness of the surfaces (and closing force).
1
In what direction does friction always act in relation to motion?
Friction always acts to resist motion and therefore acts in the opposite direction to the (potential) motion.
Friction always acts to assist motion and therefore acts in the opposite direction to the (potential) motion.
Friction always acts to assist motion and therefore acts in the same direction to the (potential) motion.
Friction always acts to resist motion and therefore acts in the same direction to the (potential) motion.
Friction always acts to resist motion and therefore acts in the opposite direction to the (potential) motion.
1
In what direction does a reaction force work and what size is this force?
When an object applies a force to a second object, the second object applies and force equal in size but opposite in direction back.
When an object applies a force to a second object, the second object applies and force equal in size but opposite in direction back.
0
What is a the name of the force a solid object applies back, when acted upon by another force?
The force a solid object applies back, when acted upon by another force, is called the Reaction force.
The force a solid object applies back, when acted upon by another force, is called the Compression force.
The force a solid object applies back, when acted upon by another force, is called the Tension force.
The force a solid object applies back, when acted upon by another force, is called the Resultant force.
The force an object applies back is called the Reaction force.
1
What is deformation?
Deformation is changing the shape of an object.
Deformation is slowing down of an object.
Deformation is speeding up of an object.
Deformation is shrinking of an object.
Unbalanced forces can also change the shape of an object: deformation.
1
How is the force of tension created?
The force of tension is created when a solid is stretched.
The force of tension is created when a solid is squashed.
The force of tension is created when a fluid flows over an aerofoil.
The force of tension is created when a solid pushes back.
When solid objects are stretched there is a force of tension created with in it.
1
When will a spring stop deforming?
A spring will deform (stretch or compress) until the tension balances the load placed upon it.
A spring will deform (stretch or compress) until the tension balances the load placed upon it.
0
What are the 3 non-contact forces?
The 3 non-contact forces are: Electrostatic; Magnetic; Weight due to gravity;
The 3 non-contact forces are: Air resistance; Electrostatic; Weight due to gravity;
The 3 non-contact forces are: Air resistance; Magnetic; Weight due to gravity
The 3 non-contact forces are: Air resistance; Electrostatic; Magnetic
Forces can also be classified as either: - non-contact forces: - gravity forces acting at a distance on Earth and in space, - forces between magnets, - Electrostatic forces due to static electricity: Rubbed balloon
1
How else, other than rubbing two objects together, can friction be produced? What is this also known as?
Pushing things out of the way also creates a type of friction: - ball pit balls - air (particles): air resistance - water (particles): water resistance These forces are also called drag.
Pushing things out of the way also creates a type of friction: - ball pit balls - air (particles): air resistance - water (particles): water resistance These forces are also called drag.
0
Why do cars have a top speed?
Cars have a top speed because as a car gets faster the drag increases until it balances the force from the engine.
Cars have a top speed because as a car gets faster the drag decreases until it balances the force from the engine.
Cars have a top speed because as a car gets faster the drag increases until it no longer balances the force from the car engine.
Cars have a top speed because as a car gets faster the drag decreases until it no longer balances the force from the car engine.
Cars have a top speed because: - As they get faster they hit more air particles (harder) - When the car hits the particles the particles hit the car causing drag - The thrust from the engine force is constant - When the drag balances the engine force there is no resultant force - So no acceleration - So car travels at a constant (top) speed
1
What is the name of the force produced by an engine or motor?
Engines and motors produce a force called Thrust.
Engines and motors produce a force called Upthrust.
Engines and motors produce a force called Lift.
Engines and motors produce a force called Kinetic.
Engines and motors produce a force called Thrust.
1
Energy Cells Particles Forces
PROGRESS OBSERVATION OPPORTUNITY
Progress Observation Opportunity
0
Why do we need energy?
It takes energy to do anything. Think of an object that does something, describe the energy it is showing.
It takes energy to do anything.
0
What are the 8 forms of energy?
The 8 simple forms of energy: Light Sound Chemical Kinetic (Movement) Electrical Gravitational Elastic Thermal (Heat) (Nuclear) (Magnetic)
The 8 simple forms of energy: Light Sound Chemical potential Kinetic (Movement) Electrical Gravitational potential Elastic potential Thermal (Heat) (Nuclear) (Magnetic)
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What is the difference between a store of energy and a flow of energy?
These can be categorised into stores and flows of energy. (Tree Map) Stores of energy can be left and returned to and the energy still be there. Flows of energy travel from one place to another.
These can be categorised into stores and flows of energy. Stores of energy can be left and returned to and the energy still be there. Flows of energy travel from one place to another.
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What are the stores of energy? What are the flows of energy?
The Stores of energy: - Gravitational potential - Elastic potential - Chemical potential - (Nuclear potential) - Kinetic - Thermal - Magnetic The Flows of energy are - Light - Sound - Electrical - Heating (These are all waves)
The Stores of energy: - Gravitational potential - Elastic potential - Chemical potential - (Nuclear potential) The Flows of energy are - Light - Sound - Kinetic (Movement) - Electrical - Thermal (Heat) - movement of particles
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How is energy transferred? Name 4 examples.
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
Energy can be transferred from place to place.
0
Does energy always stay in the same form? Explain your answer.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Usually into more than one form.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Usually into more than one form.
0
What is meant by 'conservation of energy'?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed or transferred from place to place.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed or transferred from place to place.
0
Why do we use energy transfer diagrams? Draw an energy transfer diagram for the energy transfers in a fan heater.
Energy transfer diagrams are used to transfers (and transforms) of energy. Energy transfer diagrams: - Stores of energy are written in boxes. - Flows of energy are written on arrows. - Places / objects are written at the end of arrows. - The final arrows need to point word 'surroundings'
Energy transfer diagrams are used to transfers (and transforms) of energy. Energy transfer diagrams: - Stores of energy are written in boxes. - Flows of energy are written on arrows. - Places / objects are written at the end of arrows. - The final arrows need to point word 'surroundings'
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Which direction(s) does energy flow?
Energy flows from high energy (the store) to areas of low energy (the surroundings).
Energy flows from high energy (the store) to areas of low energy (the surroundings).
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How is energy dispersed?
When energy is transferred it is always dispersed until it is evenly distributed in all places.
When energy is transferred it is always dispersed until it is evenly distributed in all places.
0
How does anything happen in terms of energy?
We harness the flow of energy from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Analogy: water wheel
We can harness this flow to do something. Analogy: water wheel
0
What sorts of processes involve energy transfers? Give 3 examples.
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
0
What is meant by a more efficient device?
Some energy is useful and some is not useful, more efficient devices have more useful energy
Some energy is useful and some is not useful, more efficient devices have more useful energy
0
What do we measure the amount of energy transferred in?
Amount of energy transferred can be measured in Joules.
Amount of energy transferred can be measured in Joules.
0
Energy Transfer Joule Fuel
REVIEW of 2P.1
Review of 2P.1
0
Why do hot objects have more energy than cooler ones? How is this energy transferred?
heating and thermal equilibrium: temperature difference between 2 objects leading to energy transfer from the hotter to the cooler one, through - contact (conduction) or - radiation; such transfers tending to reduce the temperature difference;
Hot objects have more heat energy than cooler ones.
0
In which direction does heat energy flow?
Heat energy flows from hot objects to cooler ones.
Heat energy flows from hot objects to cooler ones.
0
When does heat energy stop flowing?
Heat energy stops flowing when objects are the same temperature.
Heat energy stops flowing when objects are the same temperature.
0
What do we call energy transfer through contact?
Heat energy can transfer through contact known as conduction.
Heat energy can transfer through contact known as conduction.
0
When does conduction occur?
Conduction occurs when fast moving (hot) particles collide with slower (cooler) particles.
Conduction occurs when fast moving (hot) particles collide with slower (cooler) particles.
0
Why does energy transfer in conduction?
Energy is passed on as the fast moving particles slow down as the slower particles speed up.
Energy is passed on as the fast moving particles slow down as the slower particles speed up.
0
How, other than conduction and convection, can heat energy transfer?
Heat energy can transfer through radiation.
Heat energy can transfer through radiation.
0
What is radiation described as?
Radiation is heat energy in the form of light.
Radiation is heat energy in the form of light.
0
What is convection? What substances does it occur in?
Convection is the (mass) movement of particles with heat energy. It only occurs in fluids.
Convection is the (mass) movement of particles with heat energy.
0
To what point do objects cool down to?
Hot objects always cool down until they reach the same temperature as their surroundings.
Hot objects always cool down until they reach the same temperature as their surroundings.
0
How do insulators work?
Insulators reduce the speed (rate of) energy transfer.
Insulators reduce the speed (rate of) energy transfer.
0
What is a better insulator - air or plastic?
A gas is a better insulator than a solid.
A gas is a better insulator than a solid.
0
Why is air a better insulator than plastic?
A gas is a better insulator than a solid because gas particles are further apart than in a solid. Therefore the collision of particles are less frequent.
A gas is a better insulator than a solid because gas particles are further apart than in a solid. Therefore the collision of particles are less frequent.
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What are the best insulators?
Vacuums are the best insulators.
Vacuums are the best insulators.
0
Why are vacuums the best insulators?
Vacuums are the best insulators because there are no particles to collide in a vacuum.
Vacuums are the best insulators because there are no particles to collide in a vacuum.
0
Why do humans wear clothes to keep warm?
Layers of clothes or fur, trap air so that the particles can not convect away, while the air still reduces conduction by reducing collisions.
Layers of clothes or fur, trap air so that the particles can not convect away, while the air still reduces conduction by reducing collisions.
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What is speed? What happens if we travel faster?
Speed is how far and object travels in a bit of time. To travel fast is to cover more distance in the same time, or the same distance in less time.
Speed is how far an object travels in a bit of time. To travel fast is to cover more distance in the same time, or the same distance in less time.
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What is the equation we use to calculate speed?
The average speed for a journey is the distance traveled ÷ total time.
The average speed for a journey is the distance traveled ÷ total time.
0
What does the speed calculation tell you about your journey?
This is the average speed as you may have changed speed during the journey.
This is the average speed as you may have changed speed during the journey.
0
What do we call the speed at a given moment in time?
The speed and any one moment in time is called the instantaneous speed.
The speed and any one moment in time is called the instantaneous speed.
0
What makes roads safer?
Find out here: http://www.speedcamerasuk.com/gatso.htm http://www.speedcamerasuk.com/specs.htm
Which make for safer roads: GATSO or SPECS speed cameras? http://www.speedcamerasuk.com/gatso.htm http://www.speedcamerasuk.com/specs.htm
0
What is the relationship between distance, speed and time?
speed and the quantitative relationship between average speed, distance and time (speed = distance ÷ time)
speed and the quantitative relationship between average speed, distance and time (speed = distance ÷ time)
0
What are the units for distance and time?
The SI unit for distance is metres (m). The SI unit for time is seconds (s).
The SI unit for distance is metres (m). The SI unit for time is seconds (s).
0
What unit do we measure speed in?
The SI unit for speed is metres per second (m/s).
The SI unit for speed is metres per second (m/s).
0
How do you calculate the average speed of an object?
The average speed of an object is calculating by using the overall distance divided by the overall time taken to move this distance.
Calculate the average speed of some objects. G5: rearrange equations
0
How can you plan a practical to investigate the factors that affect a trolley's speed?
Aim: The height of the ramp affects the average speed of the car.
PLANNING: - Aim: The height of the ramp affects the average speed of the car. - Hypothesis: That as the height of the ramp is increased the average speed of the car will increase.
0
How do we represent journeys without writing a story?
A journey can be represented on a distance-time graph. Time is the independent variable as it is always changing, all be it not under our control.
A journey can be represented on a distance-time graph. Time is the independent variable as it is always changing, all be it not under our control.
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On a distance-time graph: What does a rising straight line from left to right indicate? What does a 'horizontal line from left to right indicate?
On a distance-time graph: - A rising straight line from left to right indicates a steady increase in distance, ie a constant speed. - A 'horizontal' line from left to right indicates no change in distance and therefore the object is stationary.
On a distance-time graph: - A rising straight line from left to right indicates a steady increase in distance, ie a constant speed. - A 'horizontal' line from left to right indicates no change in distance and therefore the object is stationary.
0
What is the difference in speed between a car travelling a 30 m/s and a lorry travelling at 20 m/s? How did you work this out? What does this difference in speed show?
What is the difference in speed between a car travelling a 30 m/s and a lorry travelling at 20 m/s? => 10 m/s How did you work this out? => 30 take away 20 This is the relative motion between the car and the lorry.
What is the difference in speed between a car travelling a 30 m/s and a lorry travelling at 20 m/s? => 10 m/s How did you work this out? => 30 take away 20 This is the relative motion between the car and the lorry.
0
What is meant by 'relative motion'?
The relative motion is the 'motion' (movement) of one object measured 'relative' (from) another.
The relative motion is the 'motion' (movement) of one object measured 'relative' (from) another.
0
How much further does the car get away from the lorry in one second? What if the car starts behind the lorry?
How much further does the car get away from the lorry in one second? => 10 m/s What if the car starts behind the lorry? => The car would get closer, maybe collided at 10 m/s.
How much further does the car get away from the lorry in one second? => 10 m/s What if the car starts behind the lorry? => The car would get closer, maybe collided at 10 m/s.
0
At what speed would they collide at if they were travelling towards each other? How did you work this out?
At what speed would they collide at if they were travelling towards each other? => 50 m/s How did you work this out? => 30 plus 20
At what speed would they collide at if they were travelling towards each other? => 50 m/s How did you work this out? => 30 plus 20
0
What is velocity? What is negative velocity?
Velocity is speed in a direction. A negative velocity is in the opposite direction to a positive one.
Velocity is speed in a direction. A negative velocity is in the opposite direction to a positive one.
0
If the lorry is travelling at 20 m/s and a car at -30 m/s what speed do they collide at? How did you work this out?
If the lorry is travelling at 20 m/s and a car at -30 m/s what speed do they collide at? => 50 m/s How did you work this out? => 20 take away minus 30
If the lorry is travelling at 20 m/s and a car at -30 m/s what speed do they collide at? => 50 m/s How did you work this out? => 20 take away minus 30
0
What is weight?
The force due to gravity.
The force due to gravity is called weight.
0
What is the difference between weight and gravity?
Gravity is an attraction between objects of mass. Weight is the force due to gravity.
Gravity is an attraction between objects of mass.
0
How is the weight of an object increased?
The weight of an object will increase if the mass of the object is increased.
The weight of an object will increase if the mass of the object is increased.
0
How is the weight of an object increased?
The weight of an object will increase if the gravitational pull on the object is increased.
The weight of an object will increase if the gravitational pull on the object is increased.
0
What is gravitational pull also measured as?
The gravitational pull is measured as gravitational field strength.
The gravitational pull is measured as gravitational field strength.
0
What is the calculation for weight?
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength (g).
Weight = mass x gravitational field strength (g).
0
What sort of force is produced by gravity?
gravity produces a non-contact force
gravity produces a non-contact force
0
How are different seasons caused?
the seasons and the Earth's tilt, day length at different times of year, in different hemispheres
the seasons and the Earth's tilt, day length at different times of year, in different hemispheres
0
What travels from one place to another in a wave?
Waves transfer energy from one place to another, but not matter.
Waves transfer energy and matter from one place to another.
Waves transfer matter from one place to another, but not energy.
Waves do not transfer anything.
Waves transfer energy from one place to another, but generally not matter (particles).
0
What is the maximum displacement of a wave called?
The maximum displacement is called the amplitude.
The maximum displacement is called the frequency.
The maximum displacement is called the period.
The maximum displacement is called the equilibrium.
The maximum displacement is called the amplitude.
0
How is the wavelength of a water wave measured?
Peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough.
Peak-to-trough.
Trough-to-peak
Equilibrium point to closest equilibrium point.
The distance between like places on a wave, such as peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough, is known as the wavelengths. Wavelength is measured in metres (m).
0
What type of wave is a water wave?
Transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave.
Mechanical wave.
Electromagnetic wave.
Waves on water as undulations which travel through water with transverse motion as the wave moves horizontally but the water moves up and down.
0
What is reflection?
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave changing direction.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be reflected. This is when waves bounce off an object.
0
What is refraction?
A wave changing direction.
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be refracted. This is when waves change direction.
0
What is diffraction?
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave changing direction.
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be diffracted. This is when waves spread out through a gap.
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What is wave superposition?
When waves add together creating bigger peaks or smaller peaks.
When waves add together creating bigger peaks.
When waves add together creating smaller peaks.
When waves cancel each other out.
Water waves can add or cancel - superposition: When peaks meet you get bigger peaks. When a peak meets a trough then they cancel out.
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How is sound produced?
Sound is produced by the vibrations of objects.
Sound is produced by a stationary object.
Sound is produced by excitation of electrons.
Sound is produced by vibrations in a vacuum.
Sound is produced by vibrations of objects.
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What is the frequency of a wave?
The frequency of a wave is number of waves in a bit of time.
The frequency of a wave is how long it takes to complete one wave.
The frequency of a wave is maximum displacement within the wave.
The frequency of a wave is the distance between the trough and peak of a wave.
The number of vibrations (waves) in a bit of time is known as the frequency of a wave.
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What unit is frequency measured in?
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz).
Frequency is measured in meters (m).
Frequency is measured in seconds (s).
Frequency is measured in meters per second (m/s).
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) which means number per second.
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What is the relationship between frequency and the sound produced?
The higher the frequency of sound, the higher the pitch.
The higher the frequency of sound, the lower the pitch.
The higher the frequency of sound, the higher the volume.
The higher the frequency of sound, the lower the volume.
The higher the frequency of sound, the higher the pitch.
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What does a high frequency signal look like on an oscilloscope, compared to a low frequency signal?
The closer the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the frequency of the signal and therefore the wave.
The further apart the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the frequency of the signal and therefore the wave.
The taller the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the frequency of the signal and therefore the wave.
The shorter the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the frequency of the signal and therefore the wave.
The closer the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the frequency of the signal and therefore the wave.
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What does a high amplitude signal look like on an oscilloscope, compared to a low amplitude signal?
The taller the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the amplitude of the signal and therefore wave.
The shorter the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the amplitude of the signal and therefore wave.
The further apart the peaks are on an oscilloscope the higher the amplitude of the signal and therefore wave.
The closer the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the amplitude of the signal and therefore wave.
The taller the peaks on an oscilloscope the higher the amplitude of the signal and therefore wave.
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What is the relationship between energy and amplitude?
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the more energy in the wave and therefore the louder the sound.
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the less energy in the wave and therefore the louder the sound.
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the more energy in the wave and therefore the quieter the sound.
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the less energy in the wave and therefore the quieter the sound.
The higher the amplitude of the wave, the more energy in the wave and therefore the louder the sound.
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What is the auditory range of humans?
The auditory range of humans is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
The auditory range of humans is from 30 Hz to 30 kHz.
The auditory range of humans is from 30 Hz to 10 kHz.
The auditory range of humans is from 20 Hz to 10 kHz.
The auditory range of humans is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
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What is ultrasound?
Sound frequencies above the hearing range of humans are called ultrasound.
Sound frequencies below the hearing range of humans are called ultrasound.
Sound frequencies that can only be heard by bats are called ultrasound.
Sound frequencies within the hearing range of humans are called ultrasound.
Sound frequencies above the hearing range of humans are called ultrasound.
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What can ultrasound be used for and why?
Ultrasound can be used to pass on energy and therefore be used for cleaning and physiotherapy.
Ultrasound can be used to collect energy and therefore be used for cleaning and physiotherapy.
Ultrasound can be used to collect energy and therefore be used for pregnancy scans.
Ultrasound can be used to pass energy though anything and therefore be used for pregnancy scans.
Ultrasound can be used to pass on energy and therefore be used for cleaning and physiotherapy.
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What type of wave is a sound wave?
Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
Sound waves are transverse waves.
Sound waves are mechanical waves.
Sound waves are electromagnetic waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal as the motion of the particles is along the direction the wave is travelling.
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Why does sound need a medium to travel?
Sound needs a medium of particles to travel, as the energy in sound waves is passed on by the collision of particles.
Sound needs a medium of particles to travel, as the energy in sound waves is passed on by the rubbing of particles.
Sound needs a medium so that it not too large.
Sound needs a medium so that it is not too small.
Sound needs a medium of particles to travel, as the energy in sound waves is passed on by the collision of particles.
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In which of state of matter (solid, liquid, gas) does sound sound travel fastest?
Sound travels fastest in solids.
Sound travels fastest in liquids.
Sound travels fastest in gases.
Sound travels slowest in liquids.
Sound travels fastest in solids and slowest in gasses.
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Why does the sound travel faster?
Sound travels fastest in solids as the particles are closest together and so the collisions are passed on faster.
Sound travels fastest in solids as the particles are closest together and so the collisions are passed on slower.
Sound travels fastest in gases as the particles are closest together and so the collisions are passed on faster.
Sound travels fastest in gases as the particles are closest together and so the collisions are passed on slower.
Sound travels fastest in solids as the particles are closest together and so the collisions are passed on faster. Sound travels slowest in gasses as the particles are farthest apart and so the collisions are passed on slower.
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What happens when sound waves collide with an object such as an ear drum?
The sound energy is absorbed by the ear drum.
The sound energy is created by the ear drum.
The sound energy is destroyed by the ear drum.
The sound energy is attracted by the ear drum.
The sound energy is absorbed by the diaphragm and ear drum.
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What is an echo?
Echoes are the reflection of a sound wave with a long time delay.
Echoes are the reflection of a sound wave with a short time delay.
Echoes are the refraction of a sound wave with a long time delay.
Echoes are the refraction of a sound wave with a short time delay.
Echoes are just the reflection of a sound wave with an big enough time delay, such that your brain separates the sound into two distinct events.
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What is the equation to calculate speed?
speed = distance / time
speed = distance x time
time = speed / distance
time = distance x speed
Speed = distance / time With reflections / echoes the sound travels twice the distance of the person making the sound and the wall.
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What causes a spring to deform?
A spring will deform (stretch or compression) until the tension balances the load placed upon it.
A spring will deform (stretch or compression) until the tension balances the load placed upon it.
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What happens to an object when it is deformed elastically?
When a spring (or any object) is deformed elastically it will go back to its original shape.
When a spring (or any object) is deformed elastically it will go back to its original shape.
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What energy transfers occur when an object is deformed elastically?
When a spring (or any object) is deformed elastically, there is work done as kinetic energy is transformed into elastic (strain) potential energy.
When a spring (or any object) is deformed elastically, there is work done as kinetic energy is transformed into elastic (strain) potential energy.
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What happens to the elastic potential energy of a spring as it returns to its original shape?
The elastic (strain) potential energy can be retrieved as the object returns to it shape, normally in the form of kinetic energy.
The elastic (strain) potential energy can be retrieved as the object returns to it shape, normally in the form of kinetic energy.
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What happens to an object when it is deformed plastically?
force-extension linear relation; Hooke's Law as a special case
When a spring (or any object) is deformed plastically it will not go back to its original shape.
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What energy transfers occur when an object is plastically deformed and where is the energy?
When a spring (or any object) is deformed plastically kinetic energy is used to overcome the forces between particles. This energy ends up as thermal energy as the particles are vibrating more.
When a spring (or any object) is deformed plastically kinetic energy is used to overcome the forces between particles. This energy ends up as thermal energy as the particles are vibrating more.
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What is happening to a spring during the linear region of a force-extension graph? At what point does the spring stop obeying Hooke's law?
While in the linear region of a force-extension graph, the spring is obeying Hooke's Law and the deformation is elastic. Past the limit of proportionality, the spring does not obey Hooke's Law and is being plastically deformed.
While in the linear region of a force-extension graph, the spring is obeying Hooke's Law and the deformation is elastic. Past the limit of proportionality, the spring does not obey Hooke's Law and is being plastically deformed.
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What is the role of a machine in terms of forces?
A machines transmits a force from one place or object to another.
A machines transmits a force from one place or object to another.
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What is the advantage and disadvantage of a simple machine?
Simple machines give bigger force but at the expense of smaller movement (and vice versa)
Simple machines give bigger force but at the expense of smaller movement (and vice versa)
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Give 3 examples of simple machines.
Simple machines include: - Ramps - Levers - Pulleys - Wedge - Screw
Simple machines include: - Ramps - Levers - Pulleys - Wedge - Screw
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What is work done? What is work done also known as? What unit do we use for work done?
The product of force and displacement is work done. Work done is also known as energy transferred. The unit of work done is therefore Joules.
The product of force and displacement is work done. Work done is also known as energy transferred. The unit of work done is therefore Joules.
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What is the relationship between energy transferred in and work done?
The 'energy transferred in' is equal to the work done.
The 'energy transferred in' is equal to the work done.
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What is a moment?
A moment is the turning effect of a force?
When a force is applied offset from a pivot, the force produces a turning effect. This turning effect is known as a 'moment'.
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What two factors is the size of a moment proportional to?
The size of a moment proprtional to two factors: -the size of the force applied -the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force
The size of a moment proprtional to two factors: -the size of the force applied -the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force
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What unit do we use for moments?
The SI units of a moment are Newton Metres (Nm), although Ncm are commonly used.
The SI units of a moment are Newton Metres (Nm), although Ncm are commonly used.
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What is gas pressure caused by?
Gas pressure is caused by particles (in a gas) bouncing off a surface.
Gas pressure is caused by particles (in a gas) bouncing off a surface.
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What is atmospheric pressure caused by?
Atmospheric pressure, it is caused by the weight of air above.
Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of air above.
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What effect does increase of height have on atmospheric pressure? Explain this.
Atmospheric pressure, decreases with increase of height as weight of air above decreases with height
Atmospheric pressure, decreases with increase of height as weight of air above decreases with height
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What is the equation for calculating pressure?
Pressure = force/area
Pressure measured by ratio of force over area - acting normal to any surface.
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What is pressure in fluids caused by?
Pressure in fluids is caused by the collision of particles on the surface of an object.
Pressure in fluids is caused by the collision of particles on the surface of an object.
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What is the magnitude of the pressure in liquids equal to?
The magnitude of the pressure in liquids is equal to the weight of water above the object.
The magnitude of the pressure in liquids is equal to the weight of water above the object.
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What happens to the pressure in liquids when depth is increased?
The pressure in liquids increases with depth.
The pressure in liquids increases with depth.
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What is the relationship between the upthrust force and the weight of the water?
The size of the upthrust force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object.
The size of the upthrust force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by the object.
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To what point will an object sink to?
An object will sink until enough water is displaced to produce an upthrust to balance it's weight.
An object will sink until enough water is displaced to produce an upthrust to balance it's weight.
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What causes an object to sink?
If the weight of the object is greater than the upthrust produced the object will sink.
If the weight of the object is greater than the upthrust produced the object will sink.
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What causes an object to float?
If the weight of the object is equal to the upthrust produced the object will float.
If the weight of the object is equal to the upthrust produced the object will float.
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What is the density of water equal to?
The density of water is 1kg/l = 1g/ml
The density of water is 1kg/l = 1g/ml
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What effect do objects that are less dense than water have on the water?
Objects which are less dense than water will displace a greater weight of water than they have. Therefore they will float.
Objects which are less dense than water will displace a greater weight of water than they have. Therefore they will float.
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What effect do objects that are more dense than water have on water?
Objects which are more dense than water will displace a smaller weight of water than they have. Therefore they will sink.
Objects which are more dense than water will displace a smaller weight of water than they have. Therefore they will sink.
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What method is used to heat most homes? How do urban homes get this resource? How do rural homes get this resource?
Most homes are heated with natural gas. This is piped to most homes through a national grid, although Rural homes may have a gas tank.
Most homes are heated with natural gas. This is piped to most homes through a national grid, although Rural homes may have a gas tank.
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What is a non-renewable energy source? Give some examples.
A non-renewable energy source is an energy source that cannot be reused. Non-Renewable Energy Resources include: - Coal - Oil - Gas - Nuclear
Non-Renewable Energy Resources include: - Coal - Oil - Gas - Nuclear
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What is the main difference between homes powered by gas and homes powered by oil?
Homes used to be powered by oil. Some homes are still are. There is no national oil pipe network.
Homes used to be powered by oil. Some homes are still are. There is no national oil pipe network.
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What are most of the appliances in the home powered by?
Most of the other appliances in the home are powered by electricity.
Most of the other appliances in the home are powered by electricity.
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Where is electricity generated?
Electricity is generated in Power Stations which harness an 'Energy Resource'.
Electricity is generated in Power Stations which harness an 'Energy Resource'.
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What is a renewable energy source? Give some examples.
A renewable energy source is an energy source that can be reused.Renewable Energy Resources include: - Wind - Wave - Hydro - Tidal - Solar - Biomass - Geothermal
Renewable Energy Resources include: - Wind - Wave - Hydro - Tidal - Solar - Biomass - Geothermal
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How do most thermal power stations work?
Most thermal power stations convert Chemical (or Nuclear) Energy into thermal by burning and then into Electrical Energy (Intermediate steps optional).
Most thermal power stations convert Chemical (or Nuclear) Energy into thermal by burning and then into Electrical Energy (Intermediate steps optional).
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How do most non-thermal power stations work?
Most non-thermal power stations convert Kinetic Energy into Electrical Energy (Intermediate steps optional).
Most non-thermal power stations convert Kinetic Energy into Electrical Energy (Intermediate steps optional).
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What energy transfers occur in solar power stations?
Solar power stations convert Light Energy into Electrical Energy directly.
Solar power stations convert Light Energy into Electrical Energy directly.
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What sort of appliances generally use the most energy?
Heating appliances use a lot of energy.
Heating appliances use a lot of energy.
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What does the amount of energy transferred depend on?
The amount of energy transferred by an appliance depends on the power rating of the appliance and the duration.
The amount of energy transferred by an appliance depends on the power rating of the appliance and the duration.
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What is the equation for calculating energy?
Energy = power x time
Energy = power x time
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How many Joules are there in a kilojoule?
There are 1000 joules in a kilojoule.
Sample calculations to include: J, kJ, kWhour units.
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What is a kilowatt hour? What units are used?
The amount of energy transferred in one hour. kWh.
A unit of electrical energy is the same as a kilowatt hour (kWh).
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How is the amount of energy used by a customer measured?
The amount of electrical energy used by a customer is measured by an electrical meter.
The amount of electrical energy used by a customer is measured by an electrical meter.
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What is the equation for calculating the cost of electricity?
The cost of electricity is equal to number of units x cost per unit.
The cost of electricity is equal to number of units x cost per unit.
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What is the rough cost of an electrical unit?
The cost of an electrical unit is around 15p. The cost of Gas is around 4p per kWh, which is why it is preferred for heating applications.
The cost of an electrical unit is around 15p. The cost of Gas is around 4p per kWh, which is why it is preferred for heating applications.
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Which part of the magnet is the strongest?
magnetic poles, attraction and repulsion
Magnets are strongest on their ends.
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What are the ends of a magnet called?
The ends are called magnetic poles.
The ends are called magnetic poles.
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How do the poles of a magnet interact?
Opposite poles attract and similar poles repel.
Opposite poles attract and similar poles repel.
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How can magnets be made by using another magnet?
Magnets can be made by stroking an magnetic material in the same direction with the same pole on a magnet.
Magnets can be made by stroking an magnetic material in the same direction with the same pole.
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Why do magnetic materials become magnetic?
Magnetic materials become magnetic when the domains inside are lined up in the same direction.
Magnetic materials become magnetic when the domains inside are lined up in the same direction.
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What is a magnetic domain?
Magnetic domains are small regions within the material that act like a magnet.
Magnetic domains are small regions within the material that act like a magnet.
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How are magnetic domains created?
Domains are created by the spinning electrons in particles
Domains are created by the spinning electrons in particles.
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What is a magnetic field?
The area around a magnet in which a magnetic object experiences a force is called a magnetic field.
The area around a magnet in which a magnetic object experiences a force is called a magnetic field.
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What does the shape of a magnetic field depend on?
magnetic fields by plotting with compass, representation by field lines
The magnetic field has a shape based on the shape of the magnet and the magnetic objects abound it.
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How do we represent magnetic fields in drawings?
Magnetic fields are represented by field lines.
Magnetic fields are represented by field lines.
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Where are the magnetic fields usually the strongest?
The magnetic field is strongest where magnetic field lines are closest together (normally the poles).
The magnetic field is strongest where magnetic field lines are closest together (normally the poles).
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How can we plot magnetic field lines?
Magnetic field lines can be plotted with a compass.
Magnetic field lines can be plotted with a compass.
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Which direction do magnetic field lines flow?
Magnetic field lines flow from North to South poles outside a magnet.
Magnetic field lines flow from North to South poles outside a magnet.
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What shape is the Earth's magnetic field?
Earth's magnetism, compass and navigation
The Earth has a magnetic field with a similar shape to that of a bar magnet.
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What is the Earth's magnetic field caused by?
The Earth's has a magnet field is caused by the spinning of Iron and Nickel core.
The Earth's has a magnet field is caused by the spinning of Iron and Nickel core.
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How do compasses work?
The Earth's magnetic field will produce a force on compass needle, aligning the needle with the Earth's field and navigation
The Earth's magnetic field will produce a force on compass needle, aligning the needle with the Earth's field and navigation
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How do magnetic materials affect the location of magnetic field lines?
Magnetism flows more easily through a magnetic material and so magnetic materials change the location of magnetic field lines.
Magnetism flows more easily through a magnetic material and so magnetic materials change the location of magnetic field lines.
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How do objects become charged?
Objects can become charged when objects are rubbed together.
Objects can become charged when objects are rubbed together.
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What do objects with the same charge do to each other?
Objects charged in the same way repel each other.
Objects charged in the same way repel each other.
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What do objects with opposite charges do to each other?
Objects used to charge each other will attract each other.
Objects used to charge each other will attract each other.
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What causes a negative charge?
The negative charges which are transferred are electrons.
The negative charges which are transferred are electrons.
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What forces occur between charged objects?
There are electrostatic forces between charged objects.
There are electrostatic forces between charged objects.
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Why is it that electrons can be transferred by protons can't?
Electrons are able to be transferred because they are on the outer edge of an atom.
DESIRABLE: Electrons are able to be transferred because they are on the outer edge of an atom.
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What is an electric field?
The area around a charged object in which a charged object experiences a force is called a electrical field.
The area around a charged object in which a charged object experiences a force is called a electrical field.
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How do we represent electrical fields?
Electrical fields are represented by field lines.
Electrical fields are represented by field lines.
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What is the maximum displacement of a wave called?
The maximum displacement is called the amplitude.
The maximum displacement is called the amplitude.
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How is the wavelength of a wave measured?
Peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough.
The distance between like places on a wave, such as peak-to-peak or trough-to-trough, is known as the wavelengths. Wavelength is measured in metres (m).
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What do waves usually transfer?
Waves transfer energy from place to place.
Waves transfer energy from one place to another, but generally not matter (particles).
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Why are water waves and light waves described as 'transverse'?
Water waves and light waves are transverse waves, because the displacement is perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
Water waves and light waves are transverse waves, because the displacement is perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
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What is refraction?
When light (or waves) waves change speed they change direction. This is called refraction.
When light (or waves) waves change speed they change direction. This is called refraction.
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Why can light travel through a vacuum?
Light waves can travel everywhere including through a vacuum due to the fact that they don't need particles in order to travel.
Light waves can travel through a vacuum.
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What is another name for light?
Light is also known as electromagnetic radiation.
Light is called electromagnetic radiation.
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What happens when all the colours of light mix?
When different colours of light mix they combine to form white light.
When all colours of light mix they add up to form white light.
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Why are the colours of white light separated in a rainbow?
The different colours of light bend different amounts. Red is bent the least, Violet is bent the most.
The different colours of light are refracted (bend) different amounts. Red is refracted the least, Violet is refracted the most.
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Why do different colours of light bend different amounts?
They all have different frequencies.
The different colours have different frequencies of light.
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How does the frequency of light affect how much is it bent by a prism?
The higher the frequency of light, the more it is bent by a prism.
The higher the frequency of light, the more it is refracted by the prism.
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How do light waves travel if not by particles?
Light waves are displacements in electrical and magnetic fields.
Light waves do not involve particles, they are displacements in electrical and magnetic fields.
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How does frequency affect the energy of a wave?
The higher the frequency the higher the energy of the wave.
The higher the frequency the higher the energy of the wave.
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How do the frequencies of red visible light and violet visible light compare?
Red has the lowest frequency (of visible light). Violet has the highest frequency (of visible light)
Red has the lowest frequency (of visible light). Violet has the highest frequency (of visible light)
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What is the speed of light in a vacuum?
The speed of light through a vacuum is always 3x10^8 m/s
The speed of light through a vacuum is always 3x10^8 m/s
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How do the energies of red visible light and violet visible light compare?
Red has the lowest energy (of visible light). Violet has the highest energy (of visible light).
Red has the lowest energy (of visible light). Violet has the highest energy (of visible light)
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What happens when colours of paint are mixed?
When colours of paint are mixed they subtract to form brown
When colours of paint are mix they subtract, forming brown.
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What three things can happen to a wave when it encounters a material?
When a wave encounters a material it is either: reflected, absorbed or transmitted.
When a wave encounters a material it is either: reflected; absorbed or; transmitted
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How do light waves travel?
Light (waves) travels in straight lines. We use rays to show this.
Light (waves) travels in straight lines. We use rays to show this.
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What is the law of reflection off a plane surface?
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
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What is the symbol of a mirror for ray diagrams?
The symbol for a mirror in ray diagrams is a straight light with perpendicular lines on the back side.
Use of ray model to explain imaging in mirrors
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What is it called when a wave hits a flat, shiny surface and bounces back?
When a wave hits an object like a mirror, and bounces back it is called specular reflection.
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, it is called specular reflection.
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How does specular reflection allow an image to be formed?
In specular reflection rays are reflected at a consistent angle, allowing an image to be formed.
In specular reflection rays are reflected at a consistent angle, allowing an image to be formed.
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When does diffuse scattering occur?
Diffuse scattering occurs when rays are reflected from a surface in a variety of angles.
Diffuse scattering occurs when rays are reflected from a surface in a variety of angles.
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Why does a red object look red in white light?
A red object only reflects red light back to the observer. It absorbs all other colours.
Differential colour effects in absorption and diffuse reflection
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How can you split white light?
You can split white light up by passing it through a glass prism. The different coloured light will travel through the glass at different speeds, separating it out.
Mini enquiry into the effects of refraction.
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What are the components of the eye?
The eye consists of an: iris; pupil; cornea; lens; retina; and optic nerve.
The eye consists of an: iris; pupil; cornea; lens; retina; and optic nerve.
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How does light enter the eye?
Light enters the eye through the pupil.
Light enters the eye through the pupil.
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Why does the pupil change size?
The pupil changes size to keep the amount of light energy entering the eye constant.
The pupil changes size to keep the amount of light energy entering the eye constant.
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How is a focused (clear) and bright image produced by the eye?
Light is refracted so that rays of light from the one place on the object reaches only one place on the retina. This creates a focused (clear) and bright image.
Light is refracted so that rays of light from the one place on the object reaches only one place on the retina. This creates a focused (clear) and bright image.
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Why are the cornea and lens convex in shape?
The cornea and the lens are convex in shape and so focus the light.
The cornea and the lens are convex in shape and so focus the light.
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What does a lens do to the image of an object?
A lens can be used to form a bright, focused image.
A lens can collect the rays that enter it and concentrate them to a single point on the screen, forming a bright, focused image.
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How do they specialised cells detect changes in light energy in the eye?
The retina has specialised cells that sense / detect light energy by having chemicals that are destroyed when they absorb the light energy.
The retina has specialised cells that sense / detect light energy by having chemicals that are destroyed when they absorb the light energy.
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How does the eye inform the brain what you see?
The cell uses the amount of chemical left to send a message to the brain in the form of electrical energy.
The cell uses the amount of chemical left to send a message to the brain in the form of electrical energy.
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What does a ray model of a pinhole camera look like?
http://www.cbakken.net/obookshelf/camera.html
Use of ray model to explain imaging in pinhole cameras.
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With photosensitive paper where does light transfer from and to?
Light transfers energy from source to absorber.
Light transfers energy from source to absorber.
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What things can absorbed light energy do in a polaroid camera lead to?
The energy absorbed can lead to chemical effects such as photosensitive chemicals in photo films.
The energy absorbed can lead to chemical effects such photosensitive chemicals in photo films.
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How does a pinhole camera create a faint image that is in focus?
A pinhole camera creates a faint image that is in focus because only a single ray can enter the camera so there is not much light so the image is dim, but only image is formed so it is clear (focused) image.
With one small hole, a pinhole camera gives a faint image that is in focus. This is because only a single ray can enter the camera so there is not much light so the image is dim, but only image is formed so it is clear (focused) image
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What can absorbed light energy lead to in the eye?
The energy absorbed can lead to chemical changes in cells such as those in the back of the eye.- the retinia.
The energy absorbed can lead to chemical changes in cells such as those in the back of the eye.- the retenia.
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Why does having three small holes in a pinhole give three faint images that are in focus?
With three small holes, a pinhole camera gives three faint image that are in focus. It works in the same way as a single hole, but a different angle so the images are offset from each other.
With three small holes, a pinhole camera gives three faint image that are in focus. It works in the same way as a single hole, but a different angle so the images are offset from each other.
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Where is the light reflected in the eye?
Light is refracted first by the cornea and then by the lens.
Light is refracted first by the cornea and then by the lens.
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What can happen to a charged surface when light energy is absorbed?
When light is absorbed by a charged surface, the charge can leak away.
When light is absorbed by a charged surface, the charge can leak away.
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How does a bigger hole effect the image produced?
A big hole can be thought of as thousands of small holes joined together. So thousand of images are produced on the screen slightly offset from one another forming a blurred, out of focused image.
With a large hole, a pinhole camera gives a bright out of focus image. A big hole can be thought of as thousands of small holes joined together. So thousand of images are produced on the screen slightly offset from one another forming a blurred, out of focused image.
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How can a picture be made using a CCD?
If a charged pixel is exposed to light, then the charge can be measured by a circuit to indirectly measure the amount of light that had fallen on it.
The change in electrical charge can be measured by a circuit to produce a picture. ie a digital camera sensor (CCD)
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What is potential difference and what is it measured in?
Potential difference is the difference in energy between two parts of a circuit, and is measured in volts.
Potential difference is the difference in energy between two parts of a circuit, and is measured in volts.
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What is electric current?
Electric current is the flow of charge and is measured in amperes. KS4: Add 'rate of' to definition and then define the coulomb.
Electric current is the flow of charge and is measured in amperes. KS4: Add 'rate of' to definition and then define the coulomb.
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What charged particles are able to move in a metal?
The charged particles able to move in a metal are electrons. So in a metal, current is the flow of electrons.
The charged particles able to move in a metal are electrons. So in a metal current is the flow of electrons.
0
How can we describe current and how do we measure it?
Current is the amount of charge flowing around a circuit. We measure it using an ammeter placed in series in a circuit.
Current is measured using an Ammeter which must be placed in series in the circuit.
0
What do we use to measure potential difference and how must we do it?
Potential difference is measured using a Voltmeter which must be placed in parallel with a component.
Potential difference is measured using a Voltmeter which must be placed in parallel with a component.
0
What happens to current when branches in a circuit meet and why?
Charge can not be created, destroyed or be stored on a wire, therefore currents add where branches meet.
Charge can not be created, destroyed or be stored on a wire, therefore currents add where branches meet.
0
What is the store of energy in potential difference caused by?
Potential difference is a store of energy caused by the compressing of a charge particle's electric field.
Potential difference is a store of energy caused by the compressing of a charge particle's electric field.
0
What happens to the potential difference in a series circuit?
Potential differences in series add up, for example adding cells - direction important.
Potential differences in series add up, for example adding cells - direction important.
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What happens if we don't match the potential difference ratings of the battery to the bulb in a circuit?
Battery and bulb (p.d.) ratings need to be matched otherwise too much energy transfer will cause the bulbs to melt.
Battery and bulb (p.d.) ratings need to be matched otherwise too much energy transfer will cause the bulbs to melt.
0
What are the rules for representing circuits in diagram form?
Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams in which: - Wires are drawn as straight lines - With component symbols - Right angle corners.
Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams in which: - Wires are drawn as straight lines - With component symbols - Right angle corners.
0
Which components symbols are important to know?
Component symbols to know - Cell - Battery - Wire - Bulb - Switch - Voltmeter - Ammeter
Component symbols to know - Cell - Battery - Wire - Bulb - Switch - Voltmeter - Ammeter
0
How are series circuits described?
Series circuits consist of only one branch with component placed one after another.
Series circuits consist of only one branch with component placed one after another.
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How are parallel circuits described?
Parallel circuits consist of more than one branch.
Parallel circuits consist of more than one branch.
0
What is resistance and what is it measured in?
Resistance is a measure of how hard it is for current to flow through a material / set of components and measured in ohms,
Resistance is a measure of how hard it is for current to flow through a material / set of components and measured in ohms,
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Why does resistance vary between conducting and insulating components?
The differences in resistance between conducting and insulating components can be explained by the amount of charged particles (and how much charge they hold) available to move. Conductors have more available charge carriers than insulators.
The differences in resistance between conducting and insulating components can be explained by the amount of charged particles (and how much charge they hold) available to move. Conductors have more available charge carriers than insulators.
0
What is resistance the ratio of?
Resistance is the ratio of potential difference (p.d.) to current.
Resistance is the ratio of potential difference (p.d.) to current.
0
What equation is used to calculate resistance?
To be able to calculate Resistance given a p.d. and current using R = V / i
To be able to calculate Resistance given a p.d. and current using R = V / i
0
How can the equation for resistance be rearranged to find potential difference or current?
To be able to calculate either a p.d. or current given the other and the resistance by rearranging R = V / i
To be able to calculate either a p.d. or current given the other and the resistance by rearranging R = V / i
0
What are electromagnets made of?
An electromagnets is consists of: - a coil - a current source - possibly an iron core
An electromagnets is consists of: - a coil - a current source - possibly a core
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What are the main uses of electromagnets?
The main uses of electromagnets are: - Door bells - Transformers - Loudspeakers - Scrap magnets - MRI machines - Headphones
Uses of electromagnets: - Door bell - Relay
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What factors can affect the strength of an electromagnet?
The factors that can affect the strength of an electromagnet are: - number of coils of wire - voltage - number of magnets
Electromagnets enquiry: Aim: To find out how the __________ affects the strength of an electromagnet.
0
ES - What is the motor effect?
The motor effect occurs when a magnetic field created by a flow of current interacts with a magnetic field from a permanent magnet.
The motor effect occurs when a magnetic field created by a flow of current interacts with a magnetic field from a permanent magnet.
0
ES - How is the motor effect used to create a speaker?
They do this by using an electromagnet held inside a permanent magnet's field. The electric current around the amplifier constantly changes, and in changing it also changes the magnetic field around the electromagnet. This causes changing attraction and repulsion between the two magnets making the electromagnet move backwards and forwards. This movement causes sound waves.
To use the motor effect to explain: - a 'ding dong' door bell. - Speaker
0
What is a hazard?
A hazard is the thing that will cause you harm.
A hazard is how you may be harmed.
A hazard is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A hazard is what you do if you are harmed.
A hazard is the thing that will cause you harm.
1
What is a risk?
A risk is how you may be harmed.
A risk is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A risk is the thing that will cause you harm.
A risk is what you do if you are harmed.
A risk is how you may be harmed.
1
What is a control measure?
A control measure is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A control measure is the thing that will cause you harm.
A control measure is how you may be harmed.
A control measure is what you do if you are harmed.
A control measure is what you keep the same to ensure a fair test.
1
What do we do with the Independent Variable?
We change the Independent Variable.
We measure the Independent Variable.
We keep the Independent Variable the same to make it a fair test.
We keep the Independent Variable the same to improve accuracy.
The Independent Variable is the one we change.
1
What do we do with the Dependent Variable?
We measure the Dependent Variable.
We keep the Dependent Variable the same to make it a fair test.
We change the Dependent Variable.
We keep the Dependent Variable the same to improve accuracy.
The Dependent Variable is the one we measure.
1
What do we do with the Control Variables?
We keep the Control Variables the same to make it a fair test.
We measure the Control Variables.
We change the Control Variables.
We keep the Control Variables the same to improve accuracy.
The Control Variables are the ones we keep the same to make it a fair test.
1
What do we use to measure the volume of a liquid?
We use a measuring cylinder to measure the volumes of liquids.
We use a thermometer to measure volumes of liquids.
We use a balance to measure volumes of liquids.
We use a Newton meter to measure volumes of liquids.
We use a measuring cylinder to volumes of liquids.
1
What do we used to measure the temperature of an object?
We use thermometers to measure the temperature of an object.
We use measuring cylinder to measure the temperature of an object.
We use balances to measure the temperature of an object.
We use Newton meters to measure the temperature of an object.
We use thermometers to measure the temperature of an object.
1
How do we identify categoric IV data and what type of graph do we draw?
Categoric data can only be from a set of possible values and a bar chart should be drawn.
Categoric data can be any value and a bar chart should be drawn.
Categoric data can only be from a set of possible values and a scattergraph should be drawn.
Categoric data can be any value and a scattergraph should be drawn.
Categoric data can only be from a set of possible values.
1
How do we identify continuous IV data and what type of graph do we draw?
Continuous data can be any value and scattergraph should be drawn.
Continuous data can only be from a set of possible values and a bar chart should be drawn.
Continuous data can be any value and a bar chart should be drawn.
Continuous data can only be from a set of possible values and a scattergraph should be drawn.
For Continuous IV data we plot a scattergraph.
1
Mod
Number of Questions
0S
10
1B
10
1C
10
1P
10
BI
5
1
B1
C1
P1
2
B2
C2
P2
B
1B
2B
3B
4B
5B
6B
8B
C
1C
2C
3C
4C
5C
6C
7C
8C
l
Del
I
BI
P
1P
2P
3P
4P
5P
6P
7P
8P
S
0S
