https://www.mrcorfe.com/Hamble/MCQ/2?Edit=1&Mod=2
10th Sep '25
Multiple Choice 2015-16
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Answer
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What sub-celluar structures are found in most animal cells?
Most animal cells have the following parts: a nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes.
Most animal cells have the following parts: - a nucleus - cytoplasm - a cell membrane - mitochondria - ribosomes.
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What additional sub-celluar structures do plant cells often have?
In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have: chloroplasts, permanent vacuole filled with cell sap, cell wall.
In addition to the parts found in animal cells, plant cells often have: - chloroplasts - a permanent vacuole filled with cell sap - cell wall
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What are plant and algal cell walls made of to strengthen the cell?
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which strengthens the cell.
Plant and algal cells also have a cell wall made of cellulose, which strengthens the cell.
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How are each of the following sub-ceullular structures related to their functions: nucleus, cytoplasm, cell membrane, mitochondria, ribosomes, and plasmids (bacterial cells)?
Nuclues - controls activities of the cell, contains DNA. Cytoplasm - site of chemical reactions, liquid for substances to diffuse/move. Cell membrane - controls movement of substances in and out of cells, partially permeable mebrane. Mitochondria - site of respiration, large surface area to volume ratio from folds. Chloroplasts - site of photosynthesis, contains chlorophyll to absorb light energy. Ribosomes - site of protein synthesis, they are very small. Plasmids - single loops of DNA, control activity of the cell.
Students should be able to explain how the main sub-cellular structures, including the nucleus, cell membranes, mitochondria, chloroplasts in plant cells and plasmids in bacterial cells are related to their functions.
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What is the estimated size of an ant, the diameter of a hair, the length of a leaf cell, the size of a red blood cell, the length of bacterium, the size of a virus, the diameter of DNA and the size of a carbon atom.
The estimated size of an ant 3mm, the diameter of a hair 100um, the length of a leaf cell 70um, the size of a red blood cell 7um, the length of bacterium 1um, the size of a virus 100nm, the diameter of DNA 2.5nm and the size of a carbon atom 0.34nm.
Students should be able to use estimations and explain when they should be used to judge the relative size or area of sub-cellular structures.
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What is contained in the cell nucleus?
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA molecules
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes made of DNA molecules.
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What is a chromosome made up of?
Each chromosome carries a large number of genes
Each chromosome carries a large number of genes.
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How are chromosomes normally found in body cells?
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs.
In body cells the chromosomes are normally found in pairs.
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What is a cell cycle?
Where cells divide in a series of stages
Cells divide in a series of stages called the cell cycle.
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What happens during the cell cycle?
During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then divided into two identical cells.
During the cell cycle the genetic material is doubled and then divided into two identical cells.
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What must happen before a cell divides?
Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome.
Before a cell can divide it needs to grow and increase the number of sub-cellular structures such as ribosomes and mitochondria. The DNA replicates to form two copies of each chromosome.
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in mitosis what happens after DNA has been replicated?
In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides.
In mitosis one set of chromosomes is pulled to each end of the cell and the nucleus divides.
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In mitosis how many cells are produced and how could you describe them?
Two - identical daughter cells
Finally the cytoplasm and cell membranes divide to form two identical cells.
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What are the three main stages of a cell cycle during mitosis?
1. Replication of DNA 2. DNA divides 3. Two cells formed
Students need to understand the three overall stages of the cell cycle but do not need to know the different phases of the mitosis stage.
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Why is cell division by mitosis important in multicellular organisms?
For growth and development
Cell division by mitosis is important in the growth and development of multicellular organisms.
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A human cell has 46 pairs of choromsomes what stage of mitosis is in it?
First stage - replication of DNA (Prophase)
Students should be able to recognise and describe situations in given contexts where mitosis is occurring.
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What are the other risk factors apart from lifestyle risk factors?
There are also genetic risk factors for some cancers.
There are also genetic risk factors for some cancers.
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In terms of cells what is cancer?
Cancer is the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division.
Students should be able to describe cancer as the result of changes in cells that lead to uncontrolled growth and division.
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What are benign tumours?
Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane.
Benign tumours are growths of abnormal cells which are contained in one area, usually within a membrane.
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Can benign tumours cause cancer to spread around the body?
No, benign tumours do not invade other parts of the body.
Benign tumours do not invade other parts of the body.
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What are malignant tumours?
Malignant tumour cells are cancers.
Malignant tumour cells are cancers.
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How do malignant tumours form secondary tumours?
Malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues and spread to different parts of the body in the blood where they form secondary tumours.
Malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues and spread to different parts of the body in the blood where they form secondary tumours.
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What are the main risk factors for various types of cancer?
The lifestyle risk factors for cancer can include, smoking, drinking alcohol, obesity and excessive exposure to sunlight.
Scientists have identified lifestyle risk factors for various types of cancer.
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At what stage of an animal cell's life cycle does it differentiate?
Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage.
Most types of animal cell differentiate at an early stage.
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What happens during cell differentiation when an organism develops?
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells.
As an organism develops, cells differentiate to form different types of cells.
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What happens to a cell during differentiation to become a specialised cell?
As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular structures to enable it to carry out a certain function. It has become a specialised cell.
As a cell differentiates it acquires different sub-cellular structures to enable it to carry out a certain function. It has become a specialised cell.
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Why is cell differentiation important?
Cell differentiation is important because it causes cells to become adapted for a particular function. This makes the cell specialised.
Students should be able to explain the importance of cell differentiation.
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In mature animals, what is cell division mainly used for?
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement
In mature animals, cell division is mainly restricted to repair and replacement.
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What is a stem cell?
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type, and from which certain other cells can arise from differentiation.
A stem cell is an undifferentiated cell of an organism which is capable of giving rise to many more cells of the same type, and from which certain other cells can arise from differentiation.
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What is the function of stem cells in human embryos?
Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to differentiate into most different types of human cells
Stem cells from human embryos can be cloned and made to differentiate into most different types of human cells.
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What type of cells can be produced from bone marrow stem cells?
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells including blood cells
Stem cells from adult bone marrow can form many types of cells including blood cells.
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What conditions are stem cells used to treat?
Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and paralysis.
Treatment with stem cells may be able to help conditions such as diabetes and paralysis.
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What is produced in therapeutic cloning?
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient.
In therapeutic cloning an embryo is produced with the same genes as the patient.
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Why can stem cells from embryos useful in medical treatment?
Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the patient?s body so they may be used for medical treatment.
Stem cells from the embryo are not rejected by the patient?s body so they may be used for medical treatment.
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What are the dangers of using stem cells for treatment?
The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral infection
The use of stem cells has potential risks such as transfer of viral infection, and some people have ethical or religious objections.
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What are the ethical issues surrounding the use of stem cells?
harm/death to embyro, un natural, un godly
(WS) Evaluate the practical risks and benefits, as well as social and ethical issues, of the use of stem cells in medical research and treatments.
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What is the function of stem cells in meristem tissues in plants?
Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell, throughout the life of the plant.
Meristem tissue in plants can differentiate into any type of plant cell, throughout the life of the plant.
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What are the advantages of using stem cells from meristems in plants?
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones of plants quickly and economically.
Stem cells from meristems in plants can be used to produce clones of plants quickly and economically.
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How can stem cells be used to ensure biodiversity?
Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.
Stem cells from meristems in plants are used. Rare species can be cloned to protect from extinction.
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How can farmers benefit from the use of stem cells from meristems?
Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers.
Crop plants with special features such as disease resistance can be cloned to produce large numbers of identical plants for farmers.
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How do substances move in and out of cells?
diffusion
Substances may move into and out of cells across the cell membranes via diffusion.
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What is the definition for diffusion?
Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Diffusion is the spreading out of the particles of any substance in solution, or particles of a gas, resulting in a net movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
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Name two substances that are transported in and out of cells by diffusion during gas exchange
oxygen and carbon dioxide
Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion are oxygen and carbon dioxide in gas exchange.
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How does the waste product urea reach the kidney to be excreted?
Urea diffuses from cells into the blood plasma to reach the kidney for excretion
Some of the substances transported in and out of cells by diffusion are the waste product urea from cells into the blood plasma for excretion in the kidney.
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How does the concentration gradient affec the rate of diffusion?
The bigger the concentration gradient the faster the rate of diffusion will be
Explain how the difference in concentrations (concentration gradient) affect the rate of diffusion.
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How does the difference in temperature affect the rate of diffusion?
The higher the temperature the faster the rate of diffusion
Explain how the difference in the temperature affect the rate of diffusion.
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How does the surface area of the membrane affect the rate of diffusion?
The bigger the surface area the faster the rate of diffusion will be
Explain how the surface area of the membrane affect the rate of diffusion.
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What is osmosis?
Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a dilute solution to a concentrated solution through a partially permeable membrane.
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What are the important things to include in a diagram that shows osmosis?
Partially-permeable membrane, concentration of water and of sugar, arrows to show the net movement of water
(WS) Recognise, draw and interpret diagrams that model osmosis.
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How do you calculate the rate of water uptake?
amount of water / time taken
(MS) Students should be able to: ? use simple compound measures of rate of water uptake
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How do you calculate a percentage?
(thing you are interested in / total amount ) x 100
? use percentages
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How do you calculate the percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue?
((end mass - start mass) / start mass )) x 100
? calculate percentage gain and loss of mass of plant tissue.
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What marking points are important to consider when plotting, drawing and interpreting graphs?
(MS) Students should be able to plot, draw and interpret appropriate graphs.
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What is the name of the process in which water moves across cell membranes?
Osmosis
Water may move across cell membranes via osmosis.
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What is the surface area to volume ratio of a single-celled organism like?
A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume ratio.
A single-celled organism has a relatively large surface area to volume ratio.
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How does having a large surface area to volume ratio help cells?
Having a large surface area to volume allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of the cell to meet the needs of the organism.
Having a large surface area to volume allows sufficient transport of molecules into and out of the cell to meet the needs of the organism.
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How do you calculate surface area to volume ratios?
volume = width x height x bredth area = width x height display as a ratio
Students should be able to calculate and compare surface area to volume ratios. (MS)
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Why do simple organisms need exchange surfaces?
To allow for diffuse of substances in and out. They have high surface area to volume ratio to increase the rate of this.
Students should be able to explain the need for exchange surfaces in terms of surface area to volume ratio.
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Why do multicelluar organisms need transport systems?
Too complex for simple diffusion across a membrane so transport systems are needed to deliver substances to target organs/tissues.
Students should be able to explain why multicellular organisms have transport systems in terms of surface area to volume ration
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How are the small intestine and lungs in mammals adapted for exchanging materials?
Lungs have a large surface area to volume ratio due to the structure of alveloi Small intestines have villi to increase their surface to volume ratio
Students should be able to explain how the small intestine and lungs in mammals are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are the gills in fish are adapted for exchanging materials?
Gills have a large surface area, partially permable membrane.
Students should be able to explain how the gills in fish are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are leaves in plants adapted for exchanging materials?
Leaves have guard cells and spongy mesophyl with gaps
Students should be able to explain how the leaves in plants are adapted for exchanging materials.
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How are multicellular organisms adapted for exchanging materials?
Multicellular organisms have specalised surfaces and organ systems
In multicellular organisms, surfaces and organ systems are specialised for exchanging materials.
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How do organisms get substances they need in and out of cells?
Specalised surfaces allow sufficient molecules to be transported into and out of cells for the organism?s needs.
Specalised surfaces allow sufficient molecules to be transported into and out of cells for the organism?s needs.
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How can the effectiveness of an exchange surface be increased?
The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by: ? having a large surface area ? a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path ? (in animals) having an efficient blood supply ? (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated.
The effectiveness of an exchange surface is increased by: ? having a large surface area ? a membrane that is thin, to provide a short diffusion path ? (in animals) having an efficient blood supply ? (in animals, for gaseous exchange) being ventilated.
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What is active transport?
Active transport is a process that moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient).
Active transport moves substances from a more dilute solution to a more concentrated solution (against a concentration gradient).
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Does active transport require energy?
Active transport requires energy from respiration.
Active transport requires energy from respiration.
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How does active transport allow plants to absorb esstential ions from soil?
Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil.
Active transport allows mineral ions to be absorbed into plant root hairs from very dilute solutions in the soil.
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Why do plants require ions from the soil?
Plants require ions for healthy growth.
Plants require ions for healthy growth.
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How does active transport allow sugar to move from the gut into the blood when it has a higher sugar concentration?
Active transport also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower concentrations in the gut into the blood which has a higher sugar concentration.
Active transport also allows sugar molecules to be absorbed from lower concentrations in the gut into the blood which has a higher sugar concentration.
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Why is sugar esstential to cells of living things?
Sugar is esstential to cells of living things as it is used for cell respiration
Sugar molecules are used for cell respiration.
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What are the three ways that substances can enter and leave cells?
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport.
Students should be able to describe how substances are transported into and out of cells by diffusion, osmosis and active transport
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What are the differences between diffusion, osmosis and active transport?
Diffusion is the spreading out of particles down a concentration gradient with/without a partially permeable membrane. Osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high concentration to a low concentration solution across a partially permeable membrane. Active transport is the movement of ions in solution across a partially permeable membrane through carrier proteins, this requires energy
students should be able to explain the differences between the three processes.
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Why is the digestive system an example of an organ system?
The digestive system is an example of an organ system as it has several organs working together.
The digestive system is an example of an organ system in which several organs work together to digest and absorb food.
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How do enzymes relate to metabolism?
Enzymes relate to metabolism as they help in the digestion of food.
Students should be able to relate knowledge of enzymes to Metabolism.
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What are the products of digestion used for?
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins as well as glucose being used for respiration.
The products of digestion are used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Some glucose is used in respiration.
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Where is bile made and stored?
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder
Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder.
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What does bile do with the stomach acid?
Bile neutralises stomach acid.
[Bile] is alkaline to neutralise hydrochloric acid from the stomach.
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What does bile do with fats?
Bile emulsifies fats to form small droplets to increase the surface area of the fats and increase the rate of digestion.
[Bile] also emulsifies fat to form small droplets which increases the surface area.
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What two factors increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase?
The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase.
The alkaline conditions and large surface area increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase.
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How are the following adapted to their functions: a) root hair cells, b) xylem, c) phloem?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to volume ratio to allow for effective transport of substances. The inside of the xylem vessels is made of dead cells that are waterproof to allow water up the stem. The phloem are made of live cells meaning transport can happen by active transport as well as diffusion.
Students should be able to explain how the structure of root hair cells, xylem and phloem are adapted to their functions.
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How does increasing temperature, humidity and light intensity affect the rate of transpiration?
Increasing temperature increases transpiration due to increased evaporation of water from the stomata. Increasing humidity decreases the rate of transpiration due to the concentration of water particles on the outside of the leaf being higher and therefore osmosis not occurring. Increasing light intensity increases the rate of transpiration due to the increase in the rate of photosynthesis.
Students should be able to explain the effect of changing temperature, humidity, air movement and light intensity on the rate of transpiration.
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Which parts of the plant are involved in transporting substances?
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of substances around the plant.
The roots, stem and leaves form a plant organ system for transport of substances around the plant.
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What are translocation and transpiration and how do they work?
Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from the leaves, through the opening of the stomata, which results in more water being drawn up from the roots. Translocation is the movement of nutrients and other substances from the leaves to the rest of the plant.This happens through diffusion and active transport.
Students should be able to describe the process of transpiration and translocation, including the structure and function of the stomata.
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What is the job of the root hair cells and how are they adapted to it?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to volume ratio so that they are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.
Root hair cells are adapted for the efficient uptake of water by osmosis, and mineral ions by active transport.
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What is the role of xylem tissue and how is it adapted for it?
Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the transport of water in the transpiration stream.
Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stems and leaves. It is composed of hollow tubes strengthened by lignin adapted for the transport of water in the transpiration stream.
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What is the role of the stomata and guard cells?
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange and water loss.
The role of stomata and guard cells are to control gas exchange and water loss.
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What is the role of the phloem and what is the name of this process?
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation.
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of the plant for immediate use or storage. The movement of food molecules through phloem tissue is called translocation.
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What is measles and why are young children vaccinated against it?
Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash. Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.
Measles is a viral disease showing symptoms of fever and a red skin rash. Measles is a serious illness that can be fatal if complications arise. For this reason most young children are vaccinated against measles.
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How is the measles virus spread?
The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.
The measles virus is spread by inhalation of droplets from sneezes and coughs.
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What is the initial symptom of HIV and what do antiretroviral drugs stop the virus doing?
HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body's immune cells.
HIV initially causes a flu-like illness. Unless successfully controlled with antiretroviral drugs the virus attacks the body's immune cells.
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When does late stage HIV infection or AIDS occur?
Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body's immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.
Late stage HIV infection, or AIDS, occurs when the body's immune system becomes so badly damaged it can no longer deal with other infections or cancers.
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How is HIV spread?
HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles.
HIV is spread by sexual contact or exchange of body fluids such as blood which occurs when drug users share needles.
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What is tobacco mosaic virus?
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes.
Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) is a widespread plant pathogen affecting many species of plants including tomatoes.
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How does tobacco mosaic virus reduce growth in plants?
TMV gives a distinctive 'mosaic' pattern of discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.
TMV gives a distinctive 'mosaic' pattern of discolouration on the leaves which affects the growth of the plant due to lack of photosynthesis.
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How is Salmonella food poisoning spread?
Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions.
Salmonella food poisoning is spread by bacteria ingested in food, or on food prepared in unhygienic conditions.
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What animal is vaccinated in the UK to control the spread of Salmonella?
In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.
In the UK, poultry are vaccinated against Salmonella to control the spread.
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What are the symptoms of salmonella and what causes them?
Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the [Salmonella] bacteria and the toxins they secrete.
Fever, abdominal cramps, vomiting and diarrhoea are caused by the [Salmonella] bacteria and the toxins they secrete.
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What is gonhorrhoea and what are the symptoms?
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.
Gonorrhoea is a sexually transmitted disease (STD) with symptoms of a thick yellow or green discharge from the vagina or penis and pain on urinating.
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How and why has treatment of gonorrhoea changed over time?
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared.
Gonorrhoea is caused by a bacterium and was easily treated with the antibiotic penicillin until many resistant strains appeared.
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How is gonhorroea spread?
Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.
Gonorrhoea is spread by sexual contact.
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How can the spread of gonorrhoea be controlled?
The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom.
The spread can be controlled by treatment with antibiotics or the use of a barrier method of contraception such as a condom.
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What is the smallest part of an element that can exist?
An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist.
All substances are made of atoms. An atom is the smallest part of an element that can exist.
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How are atoms of elements represented on the periodic table?
Atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol.
Atoms of each element are represented by a chemical symbol, eg O represents an atom of oxygen, Na represents an atom of sodium.
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How many different elements are there?
There are over 100 different elements.
There are about 100 different elements. Elements are shown in the periodic table.
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How are compounds formed?
Compounds are formed from elements by chemical reactions.
Compounds are formed from elements by chemical reactions.
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How can chemical reactions be detected other than through the observation of new substances forming?
Chemical reactions can be measured by a detectable energy change.
Chemical reactions always involve the formation of one or more new substances, and often involve a detectable energy change.
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What is a compound and how is it respresented?
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions and can be represented by formulae using the symbols of the atoms from which they were formed.
Compounds contain two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions and can be represented by formulae using the symbols of the atoms from which they were formed.
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What type of reaction is needed to separate a compound into elements?
Compounds can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions.
Compounds can only be separated into elements by chemical reactions.
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How are elements ordered in the periodic table?
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic (proton) number and so that elements with similar properties are in columns, known as groups. The table is called a periodic table because similar properties occur at regular intervals.
The elements in the periodic table are arranged in order of atomic (proton) number and so that elements with similar properties are in columns, known as groups. The table is called a periodic table because similar properties occur at regular intervals.
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Metals react to form __________ charged ions
Metals react to form POSITIVELY charged ions
Elements that react to form positive ions are metals.
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In terms of electron structure, how are elements in the same group similar?
Elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outer shell (outer electrons) and this gives them similar chemical properties.
Elements in the same group in the periodic table have the same number of electrons in their outer shell (outer electrons) and this gives them similar chemical properties.
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Non-metals react to form __________ charged ions
Non-metals react to form NEGATIVELY charged ions
Elements that do not form positive ions are non-metals.
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What does the group and period of an element tell us about its electron structure?
Period = Total number of electron shells. Group = Total number of electrons found in the outermost shell
Students should be able to explain how the position of an element in the periodic table is related to the arrangement of electrons in its atoms and hence to its atomic number
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Are there more metals or non-metal elements on the periodic table?
The majority of elements are metals.
The majority of elements are metals.
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Predict how the reactivity of caesium would compare to lithium
Caesium would be far more reactive than lithium because it is further down group 1 so it experiences more shielding from the nucleus
Students should be able to predict possible reactions and probable reactivity of elements from their positions in the periodic table.
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How were elements in early periodic tables ordered?
By atomic mass
Before the discovery of protons, neutrons and electrons, scientists attempted to classify the elements by arranging them in order of their atomic weights.
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Why were early attempts at ordering the periodic table by atomic mass unsuccessful?
As this caused certain elements to be incorrectly placed in groups with elements with very different propertiesno.
The early periodic tables were incomplete and some elements were placed in inappropriate groups if the strict order of atomic weights was followed.
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How did Mendeleev predict the existence of several undiscovered elements when designing his periodic table?
He identified where there was no existing element that fit the pattern of his periodic table, so left gaps in for them.
Mendeleev overcame some of the problems by leaving gaps for elements that he thought had not been discovered and in some places changed the order based on atomic weights.
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How are metals and non-metal elements arranged on the periodic table
Metals are found to the left and towards the bottom of the periodic table. Non-metals are found towards the right and top of the periodic table.
Metals are found to the left and towards the bottom of the periodic table. Non-metals are found towards the right and top of the periodic table.
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What steps were involved in the development of the periodic table?
1. Groups of three elements with similar properties called triads. 2. More accurate atomic weights 3. Newlands table in atomic weight (law of octaves) 4. Mendeleev who left gaps putting them in groups with similar properties
Students should be able to describe these steps in the development of the periodic table.
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Which group of the periodic table are also named the nobel gases?
Group 0
The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are called the noble gases.
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Describe in terms of electron structure as to why all of the nobel gases are unreactive
They all have a full outer shell of electrons, as a result do not easily form molecules
The elements in Group 0 of the periodic table are unreactive and do not easily form molecules because their atoms have stable arrangements of electrons.
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What is the same about the electron structure for all elements in Group 0 (noble gases)?
All elements in Group 0 (noble gases) have a full outer shell of electrons.
The noble gases have eight electrons in their outer shell, except for helium, which has only two electrons.
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Describe the trend in boiling point down group 0
Boiling points increase with relative atomic mass (as you go down the group)
The boiling points of the noble gases increase with increasing relative atomic mass (going down the group).
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What is the common name given to the group 1 elements?
Alkali metals
The elements in Group 1 of the periodic table are known as the alkali metals and have characteristic properties because of the single electron in their outer shell.
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Give 4 common properties of transition metal elements.
Heat conductor, Electrical conductor, Lustrous (shiny), Dense, High melting and boiling point, High tensile strength, Strong, Hard
Students should be able to explain the differences between metals and non-metals on the basis of their characteristic physical and chemical properties. This links to Group 0, Group 1, Group 7 and Bonding, structure and the properties of matter
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Write a word equation for the reaction of sodium with chlorine.
Sodium + Chlorine -> Sodium Chloride
Students should be able to describe the reactions of the first three alkali metals with oxygen, chlorine and water.
0
Describe the trend in reactivity in group 1 as you go down the group
Reactivity of elements in group 1 increases as you go down the group (Lithium = least reactive, Francium = most reactive)
In Group 1, the reactivity of the elements increases going down the group.
0
For elements in Group 1, what do the properties depend on?
Properties of the elements in Group 1 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
Students should be able to explain how properties of the elements in Group 1 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
0
Explain why elements become more reactive the further you go down group 1
Elements in group 1 react by giving up their outermost electron. The further down the group you go the weaker the attraction between the nucleus of the atom and the outermost electron, as well as a greater amount of shielding. Therefore the electron is given up more easily.
Students should be able to predict properties from given trends down the group.
0
What are the transition elements?
Metals with similar properties which are different from those of the elements in Group 1.
The transition elements are metals with similar properties which are different from those of the elements in Group 1.
0
Compare the properties of transition metal elements with those of the group 1 elements.
Group 1 metals are soft, highly reactive to oxygen and water, form alkali solutions, are less dense than group 2 metals. Group 2 metals are harder, less reactive.
Students should be able to describe the difference compared with Group 1 in melting points, densities, strength, hardness and reactivity with oxygen, water and halogens.
0
Give examples of 3 transition metals
Any three from the transition block eg. Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
Students should be able to exemplify these general properties by reference to Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
0
What is the common name given to the group 7 elements?
The halogens
The elements in Group 7 of the periodic table are known as the halogens and have similar reactions because they all have seven electrons in their outer shell.
0
Describe the trend in boiling point and melting point of elements as you go down group 7?
As you go down group 7, the melting and boiling points of the elements increases.
In Group 7, the further down the group an element is the higher its relative molecular mass, melting point and boiling point.
0
Describe the trend in reactivity of elements as you go down group 7?
As you go down group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases.
In Group 7, the reactivity of the elements decreases going down the group.
0
Write a word equation for the reaction between sodium chloride and fluorine. What type of reaction is this?
Sodium chloride Fluorine -> Sodium Fluoride Chlorine. This is a displacement reaction as the more reactive halogen displaces the less reactive halogen from its compound.
A more reactive halogen can displace a less reactive halogen from an aqueous solution of its salt.
0
In terms of electron structure, whAt do all group 7 elements share in common?
They all have 7 electrons in their outermost shell
Students should be able to explain how properties of the elements in Group 7 depend on the outer shell of electrons of the atoms
0
List the elements of group 7 in order of reactivity.
Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine, Iodine, Astatine
Students should be able to predict properties from given trends down the group.
0
Many transition elements are also useful as catalysts. What is a catalyst?
A catalyst is a substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up itself.
Many transition elements have ions with different charges, form coloured compounds and are useful as catalysts.
0
List the general properties of compounds of transition elements
Students should be able to exemplify these general properties by reference to compounds of Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu.
0
Describe the transfer of electrons in an ionic bond
Electrons are donated from the metal element in order to complete the outer shell of the non-metal element
When a metal atom reacts with a non-metal atom, electrons in the outer shell of the metal atom are transferred.
0
When a metal atom become an ion it loses electrons. How does this effect its charge?
It becomes a positively charged ion.
Metal atoms lose electrons to become positively charged ions.
0
When a non-metal atom bonds ionically it gains electrons. How does this effect its charge?
It becomes a negatively charged ion.
Non-metal atoms gain electrons to become negatively charged ions.
0
What is the electronic structure of ions produced by group 1,2 metals and group 6,7 non metals?
They have full outside shells of electrons giving them a stable electronic configuration, the same as a noble gas.
The ions produced by metals in Groups 1 and 2 and by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7 have the electronic structure of a noble gas (Group 0).
0
How could you show the formation of an ionic compound using a dot and cross diagram?
Showing outer electrons only. Crosses for one element and dots for the other. Show transfer of electrons on shell. Use brackets to show the overall charge of the ions formed.
The electron transfer during the formation of an ionic compound can be represented by a dot and cross diagram. E.g. for sodium chloride.
0
Draw a dot cross diagram to show the ionic bond in sodium chloride.
Diagram: Sodium - Electron strucuture represented in square brackets, with a 1 charge on the top right outside the bracket. . It's one outer shell electron removed. Chlorine - Electron strucuture represented in square brackets, with a -1 charge on the top right outside the bracket. One extra electron represented as either a dot or cross shown to represent the electron gained from sodium.
Students should be able to draw dot and cross diagrams for ionic compounds formed by metals in Groups 1 and 2 with non-metals in Groups 6 and 7.
0
What charge do ions of elements from the following groups form 1) Group 1 2) Group 2 3) Group 6 4) Group 7
1) Group 1 = +1 ion 2) Group 2 = +2 ion 3) Group 6 = -2 ion 4) Group 7 = -1 ion
The charge on the ions produced by metals in Groups 1 and 2 and by non-metals in Groups 6 and 7 relates to the group number of the element in the periodic table.
0
Explain why potassium chloride is KCl but potassium oxide is K2O
The overall charge of an ionic compound will always be neutral. Potassium forms an ion with a 1 charge, so will bond in a 1:1 ratio chlorine as chlorine forms a -1 ion. Oxygen on the other hand forms a -2 ion, so for each Oxygen 2 potassiums would be needed to neutralise the charge.
Students should be able to work out the charge on the ions of metals and non-metals from the group number of the element, limited to the metals in Groups 1 and 2, and non-metals in Groups 6 and 7.
0
Describe the structure of an ionic compound?
Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in which there are strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all directions between oppositely charged ions.
Ionic compounds have regular structures (giant ionic lattices) in which there are strong electrostatic forces of attraction in all directions between oppositely charged ions.
0
Explain why ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points?
These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many strong bonds.
These compounds have high melting points and high boiling points because of the large amounts of energy needed to break the many strong bonds.
0
Under what conditions are ionic compounds able to conduct electricity?
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can flow.
When melted or dissolved in water, ionic compounds conduct electricity because the ions are free to move and so charge can flow.
0
What are the structures of different ionic compounds?
Need to know the structure of sodium chloride.
Knowledge of the structures of specific ionic compounds other than sodium chloride is not required.
0
How do we calculate the relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound?
The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.
The relative formula mass (Mr) of a compound is the sum of the relative atomic masses of the atoms in the numbers shown in the formula.
0
Why must the total relative formula mass of all of the reactants equal that of all of the products made?
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction so the mass of the products equals the mass of the reactants. Therefore the total atoms before and after a chemical reaction must be the same.
In a balanced chemical equation, the sum of the relative formula masses of the reactants in the quantities shown equals the sum of the relative formula masses of the products in the quantities shown.
0
What happens during a displacement reaction?
In a displacement reaction a more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from a compound.
A more reactive metal can displace a less reactive metal from a compound.
0
What would the independent, dependent and control variables be for a quantitative investigation into the reactivity of metals?
To investigate the reactivity of metals quantitatively the independent variable would be the type of metal. The dependent variable would be the temperature increase. The control variables would be the surface area of the metal, the volume and concentration of the water/acid, the temperature of the reactants and the mass of the metal.
Students should be able to deduce an order of reactivity of metals based on experimental results.
0
Where in the reactivity series does carbon appear and which elements can be displaced by carbon?
The order of reactivity including non metals is: Pottassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold. Only elements below carbon in the reactivity series can be displaced by carbon.
The non-metals hydrogen and carbon are often included in the reactivity series.
0
What conditions are standard when investigating the reactivity of metals with water and acids?
The reactions of metals with water and acids are limited to room temperature and do not include reactions with steam.
The reactions of metals with water and acids are limited to room temperature and do not include reactions with steam.
0
What is the list of metals (and non-metals) in the reactivity series, from most reactive to least reactive?
Potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium, carbon, zinc, iron, hydrogen, copper, silver, gold.
Metals can be arranged in order of their reactivity in a reactivity series.
0
How do each of the following metals react with each of water and dilute acids: potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper?
Lithium, sodium and potassium have vigorous reactions with cold water and explosive reactions with dilute acids. Calcium, magnesium have less vigorous reactions with water and dilute acids but it is possible to see gas being produced. Zinc, iron and copper have far less vigorous reactions, decreasing in reactivity.
Students should be able to recall and describe the reactions, if any, of potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, iron and copper with water or dilute acids and where appropriate, to place these metals in order of reactivity
0
Write the ionic equation for the displacement reaction between copper ions and magnesium
The equation for the displacement reaction between copper ions and magnesium is: Cu2 Mg --> Mg2 Cu
Student should be able to write ionic equations for displacement reactions
0
Why do some collisions between reactant particles not result in a product forming?
Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy. This doesn't always happen.
Chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
0
What does the term activation energy mean?
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
0
What information can be shown in a reaction profile?
Reaction profiles can be used to show the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change of a reaction.
Reaction profiles can be used to show the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change of a reaction.
0
What would the simple reaction profile for an exothermic reaction look like?
For an exothermic reaction the reaction profile would show the energy level for the reactants to be lower than the energy level for the products. A curved line is used to show the activation energy required for the reaction (this is higher than the products energy level)
Students should be able to draw simple reaction profiles (energy level diagrams) for exothermic and endothermic reactions showing the relative energies of reactants and products, the activation energy and the overall energy change, with a curved line to show the energy as the reaction proceeds
0
What would the simple reaction profile for an endothermic reaction look like?
For an endothermic reaction the reaction profile would show the energy level for the reactants to be higher than the energy level for the products. A curved line is used to show the activation energy required for the reaction (this is higher than the reactants energy level)
Students should be able to use reaction profiles to identify reactions as exothermic or endothermic
0
What information does the activation energy provide?
The activation energy is the energy needed for a reaction to occur.
Students should be able to explain that the activation energy is the energy needed for a reaction to occur.
0
What energy transfers occur during breaking bonds of reactants and forming new bonds of products?
During a chemical reaction energy must be supplied to break bonds in the reactants and energy is released when bonds in the products are formed.
During a chemical reaction energy must be supplied to break bonds in the reactants and energy is released when bonds in the products are formed.
0
What information can bond energies provide?
Bond energies tell us the energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when bonds are formed.
The energy needed to break bonds and the energy released when bonds are formed can be calculated from bond energies.
0
How is the overall energy change of a reaction calculated?
The overall energy change is calculated by working out the difference between the sum of the energy needed to break bonds in the reactants and the sum of the energy released when bonds in the products are formed is the overall energy change of the reaction.
The difference between the sum of the energy needed to break bonds in the reactants and the sum of the energy released when bonds in the products are formed is the overall energy change of the reaction.
0
What happens in an exothermic reaction in terms of energy, bond making and bond breaking?
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
In an exothermic reaction, the energy released from forming new bonds is greater than the energy needed to break existing bonds.
0
What happens in an endothermic reaction in terms of energy, bond making and bond breaking?
In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.
In an endothermic reaction, the energy needed to break existing bonds is greater than the energy released from forming new bonds.
0
What is the energy transferred in the following chemical reaction: hydrogen bromide decomposing to form hydrogen and bromine? 2 ? (H?Br) ? H?H Br?Br The bond energies relevant to this reaction are shown below: H?Br 366 kJ/mol H?H 436 kJ/mol Br?Br 193kJ/mol
1.Energy in = 2 ? 366 = 732 kJ/mole 2.Energy out = 436 + 193 = 629 kJ/mole 3.Energy change = in ? out = 732 ? 629 = +103 kJ/mole The energy change is positive, showing that energy is taken in from the surroundings in an endothermic reaction.
Students should be able to calculate the energy transferred in chemical reactions using bond energies supplied.
0
What energy changes are involved when an object is projected upwards?
When an object is projected upwards gravitational potential energy will increase, thermal energy will increase due to friction, which will cause the kinetic energy to decrease.
Students should be able to describe all the changes involved in the way energy is stored when a system changes, for common situations. For example: an object projected upwards
0
What is the equation for elastic potential energy?
The equation for elastic potential energy is elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension^2
The amount of elastic potential energy stored in a stretched spring can be calculated using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant x extension 2
0
What equation links g.p.e., height, mass and gravitational field strength?
Gravitational potential energy = height x mass x gravitational field strength
Students should be able to calculate the amount of energy associated with a moving object, a stretched spring and an object raised above ground level.
0
What equation is used to calculate kinetic energy of a moving object?
The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the equation: kinetic energy = 0.5 x mass x speed^2
The kinetic energy of a moving object can be calculated using the equation: kinetic energy = 0.5 ? mass ? speed2
0
What is the equation for gravitational potential energy gained by an object raised above ground level?
The equation for gravitation potential energy gained by an object above ground level is G.P.E = mass x gravitational field strength x height
The amount of gravitational potential energy gained by an object raised above ground level can be calculated using the equation: g.p.e. = mass x gravitational field strength x height
0
In all system changes, what happens to energy?
In all system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is often described as being 'wasted'.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, how in all system changes energy is dissipated, so that it is stored in less useful ways. This energy is often described as being "wasted".
0
How would you draw a series circuit with the following components; a bulb, voltmeter, battery and variable resistor?
Battery symbol connected with a straight line to a bulb which has a votmeter in parallel across this component, a straight line to the variable resisior and a final straight line back to the battery.
Circuit diagrams use standard symbols (draw and intrepret)
0
What provides the potential difference for an electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit?
A cell or Battery
For electrical charge to flow through a closed circuit the circuit must include a source of potential difference.
0
What is the definition of electric current?
Electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
Electric current is a flow of electrical charge.
0
What is the size of an electrical current determined by?
The size of the electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
The size of the electric current is the rate of flow of electrical charge.
0
How could you draw a circuit diagram to include the following components; bulb, cell, ammeter and an LDR?
A circuit diagram to include a battery/cell all components (bulb, ammeter and LDR) to be connected with straight lines ensureing these lines do not go through the components.
Students should be able to draw an appropriate circuit diagram using correct circuit symbols.
0
How are flow of charge, current and time linked by an equation?
charge flow, current and time are linked by the equation: charge flow = current ? time
Charge flow, current and time are linked by the equation: charge flow = current ? time
0
In a single closed loop what would the value of current be?
The current would have the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
A current has the same value at any point in a single closed loop.
0
How are current, potential difference and resistance linked by an equation?
current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using the equation: potential difference = current ? resistance V= = I R
Current, potential difference or resistance can be calculated using the equation: potential difference = current ? resistance V = I R
0
What does the current through a component depend on?
The current (I) through a component depends on both the resistance ? of the component and the potential difference (V) across the component.
The current (I) through a component depends on both the resistance (R) of the component and the potential difference (V) across the component.
0
What is the difference in function between a resistor and a variable resistor?
Resistors have a constant value of R, whereas a variable resistor can change the value of R as the current changes.
Students should be able to explain that, for some resistors, the value of R remains constant but that in others it can change as the current changes.
0
What are the factors affecting resistance in a wire?
The length of a wire, material and temperature and the thickness of a wire will affect the resistance.
Required practical 3 - factors affecting resistance
0
How would a high resistance of a component affect the current and potential difference across the component?
The greater the resistance of the component the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across the component.
The greater the resistance of the component the smaller the current for a given potential difference (pd) across the component.
0
How could you use a graph to identify if a circuit was linear or non-linear and relate the curves to their function and properties?
Draw a graph to identify if the line is straight or curved (linear or not) then relate this to what the elements function is Diode - current flowing only in one direction (linear then plateaus) resistor (constant temperature) restricts the flow of current, filament lamp curving graph showing that current and potential difference are not directily proportional.
Students should be able to use graphs to explore whether circuit elements are linear or non-linear and relate the curves produced to their function and properties.
0
What happens to the resistance of a filament lamp as the temperature increases?
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament increases.
The resistance of a filament lamp increases as the temperature of the filament increases. (Required practical activity 4)
0
A diode will have a very high resistance in which direction?
A diode has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.
The diode has a very high resistance in the reverse direction.
0
How does the current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) behave in relation to the current?
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains constant as the current changes.
The current through an ohmic conductor (at a constant temperature) is directly proportional to the potential difference across the resistor. This means that the resistance remains constant as the current changes. (Required practical activity 4)
0
How could you draw a circuit to measure the resistance of a component by measuring the current through, and potential difference across, the component? (include the equation)
A circuit which has a battery/cell with straight lines drawn between components, a component (bulb) with an ammeter in series and a voltmeter parallel to the component (bulb) ensuring all lines do not go throug the components. Using V = I R calculate the resistance by dividing potential difference by the current.
Students should be able to explain the design and use of a circuit to measure the resistance of a component by measuring the current through, and potential difference across, the component
0
How does the resistance of a diode behave in relation to the current of the component?
The resistance of a diode changes with the current through the component in one direction and not allow current to flow in the other direction.
The resistance of components such as lamps, diodes, thermistors and LDRs is not constant; it changes with the current through the component. (Required practical activity 4)
0
How does the current through a diode behave?
The current through a diode flows in one direction only.
The current through a diode flows in one direction only.
0
How are thermistors used for? Give an example.
Thermistors are used in circuits to detect temperature changes, an example is a thermostat.
The applications of thermistors in circuits eg a thermostat is required.
0
What happens to the resistance of an LDR as light intensity increases?
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases.
The resistance of an LDR decreases as light intensity increases. (Investigation)
0
How are LDRs used in circuits? Oive an example.
LDRs are used in circuits to detect light levels, an example is a security light.
The application of LDRs in circuits eg switching lights on when it gets dark is required.
0
What happens to the resistance of a thermistor as the temperature increases?
The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases.
The resistance of a thermistor decreases as the temperature increases. (Investigation)
0
Why would the resistance of a semiconductor decrease?
The resistance of a semicondutor will decrease as the energy increases due to more charge carriers become freed.
[The resistance of a semicondutor decreases as energy increases as more charge carriers become freed]
0
Name the two different types of circuit that can be used to join electrical components together?
There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
There are two ways of joining electrical components, in series and in parallel. Some circuits include both series and parallel parts.
0
What do we use dc series circuits for?
dc series circuits are used for most electrical circuits as they need a continuous positive suppy of electricity, wecan measure the current, potential difference and resistance in a dc circuit, if a component in a dc circuit fails this acts like a switch to turn off the circuit.
Students should be able to explain the design and use of dc series circuits for measurement and testing purposes
0
What is created in the area around a charged object?
A charged object creates an electric field around itself.
A charged object creates an electric field around itself.
0
Describe how: a) Current b) Potential difference c) Total resistance Varies between components connected in series.
For components connected in series: a) there is the same current through each component b) the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components c) The total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of each component. Rtotal = R1 R2
For components connected in series: ? there is the same current through each component ? the total potential difference of the power supply is shared between the components ? the total resistance of two components is the sum of the resistance of each component. Rtotal = R1 R2
0
What is the current if the potential difference is 12V and the resistance is 4Ohms?
I = V/R so I = 12V /4ohms = 3A
Students should be able to calculate the currents, potential differences and resistances in dc series circuits
0
Describe how: a) current b) potential difference c) total resistance varies between components connected in parallel circuits?
For components connected in parallel: a) the potential difference across each component is the same b) the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate components c) the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the smallest individual resistor.
For components connected in parallel: ? the potential difference across each component is the same ? the total current through the whole circuit is the sum of the currents through the separate components ? the total resistance of two resistors is less than the resistance of the smallest individual resistor.
0
What happens when two electically charged objects are brought close together?
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
When two electrically charged objects are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
0
In what two ways can Ohms law be applied to a circuit?
Either to a cirucit as a whole using equivalent resistence or to an individual component.
Students should be able to solve problems for circuits which include resistors in series using the concept of equivalent resistance.
0
Why does adding resistors in series increase the total resistance, whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance?
Adding resistors in parallel to a circuit results in the equivalent resistance of the circuit decreasing and the total current of the circuit increasing. Adding more resistors in parallel is equivalent to providing more branches through which charge can flow.
Students should be able to explain qualitatively why adding resistors in series increases the total resistance whilst adding resistors in parallel decreases the total resistance Students are not required to calculate the total resistance of two resistors joined in parallel.
0
What is meant by the term 'internal energy', in terms of particles?
Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
Energy is stored inside a system by the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up the system. This is called internal energy.
0
If the temperature of a system increases, what three different things does the increase in temperature depend on?
If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the type of material and the energy input to the system.
If the temperature of the system increases, the increase in temperature depends on the mass of the substance heated, the type of material and the energy input to the system.
0
What is meant by the term 'internal energy', in terms of kinetic and potential energy?
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
Internal energy is the total kinetic energy and potential energy of all the particles (atoms and molecules) that make up a system.
0
What effect does heating change have on the energy stored within the system or state of matter?
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.
Heating changes the energy stored within the system by increasing the energy of the particles that make up the system. This either raises the temperature of the system or produces a change of state.
0
What is the radius of an atom?
Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 x 10^-10 metres.
Atoms are very small, having a radius of about 1 x 10^-10 metres.
0
What is the structure of an atom, with charges for sub-atomic particles?
The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
The basic structure of an atom is a positively charged nucleus composed of both protons and neutrons surrounded by negatively charged electrons.
0
How does the radius of an atom compare with the radius of the nucleus of an atom?
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10,000 of the radius of an atom.
The radius of a nucleus is less than 1/10,000 of the radius of an atom.
0
Where is most of the mass of an atom concentrated?
Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
Most of the mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus.
0
How do energy levels differ in terms of distance from the nucleus?
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus (different energy levels).
The electrons are arranged at different distances from the nucleus (different energy levels).
0
What might cause the electron arrangements to change (from a lower to higher energy level, for example)?
The electron arrangements may change with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower energy level)
The electron arrangements may change with the absorption of electromagnetic radiation (move further from the nucleus; a higher energy level) or by the emission of electromagnetic radiation (move closer to the nucleus; a lower energy level)
0
Why is the nervous system important?
The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings and to coordinate their behaviour.
The nervous system enables humans to react to their surroundings and to coordinate their behaviour.
0
How is the nervous system adapted to its function?
The responses formulated by the nervous system are very quick and therefore allow responses to be fast and protect the organism from danger.
Be able to explain how the structure of the nervous system is adapted to its functions.
0
What do the control systems in the body include?
All control systems include:a) cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment), b) coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors, c) effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which restore optimum levels.
All control systems include:a) cells called receptors, which detect stimuli (changes in the environment), b) coordination centres (such as the brain, spinal cord and pancreas) that receive and process information from receptors, c) effectors, muscles or glands, which bring about responses which restore optimum levels.
0
How is this control made automatic?
It may involve chemical or nervous responses.
These automatic control systems may involve nervous responses or chemical responses.
0
What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external changes.
Be able to explain that homeostasis is the regulation of the internal conditions of a cell or organism to maintain optimum conditions for function in response to internal and external changes.
0
Why is homeostasis important?
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all cell functions.
Homeostasis maintains optimal conditions for enzyme action and all cell functions.
0
What things does homeostasis control?
In the human body, these include control of: a) blood glucose concentration. B) body temperature. C) water levels.
In the human body, these include control of: a) blood glucose concentration. B) body temperature. C) water levels.
0
How is information transmitted in the nervous system?
Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as electrical impulses to the central nervous system (CNS).
Information from receptors passes along cells (neurones) as electrical impulses to the central nervous system (CNS).
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What is in the central nervous system?
The CNS is the brain and spinal cord.
The CNS is the brain and spinal cord.
0
What is the role of the central nervous system?
The CNS coordinates the response of effectors which may be muscles contracting or glands secreting hormones.
The CNS coordinates the response of effectors which may be muscles contracting or glands secreting hormones.
0
What are the stages of the reflex arc?
The stages of the reflex arc are stimulus, receptor, sensory, relay, motor, effector then response.
Stimulus --> Receptor --> Coordinator --> Effector --> Response
0
How are the neurones adapted to their function?
Neurones axon allowing impulses to be transmitted long distances, they also have dendrites on the cell body which are branched to detect impulses from other nerves. They are insulated with a myelin (fatty) sheath so that impulses do not cross over and they have a synapse to propagate the impulses using chemical messengers.
Be able to explain how the various structures in a reflex arc including the sensory neurone, synapse, relay neurone and motor neurone relate to their function.
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Why are reflex actions so important?
They allow us to respond to our environment and keep ourselves out of danger.
Students should understand why reflex actions are important.
0
How are reflex actions described?
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the conscious part of the brain.
Reflex actions are automatic and rapid; they do not involve the conscious part of the brain.
0
Required Practical 7 - Reaction Time (AT skills 1,3,4)
Required Practical - Reaction Time (AT skills 1,3,4)
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What is the endocrine system and what is its role?
The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
The endocrine system is composed of glands which secrete chemicals called hormones directly into the bloodstream.
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What are the names of the glands labelled 2, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 in the following image? http://bit.ly/2Cy01Tj
Number 1 is the pituitary gland, number 2 the thyroid, number 6 are the adrenal glands and number 7 the pancreas. Number 8 are the ovaries and number 9 the testes.
Students should be able to identify the position of the following on a diagram of the human body: Pituitary gland, Pancreas, Thyroid, Adrenal Gland, Ovary and Testes.
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What is the role of the bloodstream in the endocrine system?
The blood carries the hormone to a target organ where it produces an effect.
The blood carries the hormone to a target organ, where it produces an effect.
0
How does the endocrine system compare to the nervous system?
Compared to the nervous system the effects are slower but act for longer.
Compared to the nervous system the effects are slower, but act for longer.
0
What is the pituitary gland described as and what is its role?
The pituitary gland in the brain is a "master gland" which secretes several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions.
The pituitary gland in the brain is a "master gland" which secretes several hormones into the blood in response to body conditions.
0
What do the hormones released by the pituitary gland do?
The hormones released by the pituitary gland act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects.
These hormones in turn act on other glands to stimulate other hormones to be released to bring about effects.
0
(HT) Where are thyroxine and adrenaline created in the body?
(HT) Thyroxine - thyroid gland. Adrenaline - adrenal gland.
Students should be able to explain the roles of thyroxine and adrenaline in the body (HT only)
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(HT) What is the role of adrenaline in the body?
(HT) Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for "flight or fight".
Adrenaline is produced by the adrenal glands in times of fear or stress. It increases the heart rate and boosts the delivery of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles, preparing the body for "flight or fight". (HT only)
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(HT) What is the role of thyroxine in the body?
(HT) Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic rate. It plays an important role in growth and development. (HT only)
Thyroxine from the thyroid gland stimulates the basal metabolic rate. It plays an important role in growth and development. (HT only)
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(HT) How are thyroxine levels controlled?
(HT) The thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback.
Thyroxine levels are controlled by negative feedback. Interpret and explain simple diagrams of negative feedback control. (HT only)
0
What organ monitors and controls blood glucose concentration?
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas.
Blood glucose concentration is monitored and controlled by the pancreas
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How does the pancreas control blood glucose levels?
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells.
If the blood glucose concentration is too high, the pancreas produces the hormone insulin that causes glucose to move from the blood into the cells.
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What do the liver and muscle cells do to excess glucose?
In the liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage.
In the liver and muscle cells excess glucose is converted to glycogen for storage.
0
How does insulin control blood glucose levels?
When insulin is released it causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen.
When insulin is released it causes the liver to convert more glucose into glycogen.
0
What is type 1 diabetes and how is it treated?
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is normally treated with insulin injections.
Type 1 diabetes is a disorder in which the pancreas fails to produce sufficient insulin. It is characterised by uncontrolled high blood glucose levels and is normally treated with insulin injections.
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What is type 2 diabetes and how is it controlled?
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an exercise regime are common treatments.
In Type 2 diabetes the body cells no longer respond to insulin produced by the pancreas. A carbohydrate controlled diet and an exercise regime are common treatments.
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Which diabetes is obesity a risk factor for?
Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
Obesity is a risk factor for Type 2 diabetes.
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(HT) How does the body increase the blood glucose concentration?
(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood.
(HT only) If the blood glucose concentration is too low, the pancreas produces the hormone glucagon that causes glycogen to be converted into glucose and released into the blood.
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(HT) How does glucagon control blood glucose levels?
(HT only) Glucagon interacts with insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood glucose (sugar) levels in the body.
(HT only) Glucagon interacts with insulin in a negative feedback cycle to control blood glucose (sugar) levels in the body.
0
How do osmotic changes in fluids affect red blood cells?
If a red blood cell is placed in water, water enters the cell by osmosis. Because the membrane is quite weak the cell will burst as the volume and therefore the pressure in the cell increases. Red blood cells shrink when placed in concentrated solutions of sugar as water moves out of them by osmosis.
Students should be able to explain the effect on cells of osmotic changes in body fluids
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(HT) How does ADH affect the permeability of the kidney tubules?
(HT) ADH increases the permeability of the kidney tubules (nephrons), causing them to reabsorb more water.
(HT only) Students should be able to describe the effect of ADH on the permeability of the kidney tubules.
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How does water from the lungs leave the body?
Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation.
Water leaves the body via the lungs during exhalation.
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(HT) What is the role of the hormone ADH?
(HT) ADH controls the level of water in the body by acting on the kidney tubules?
(HT only) The water level in the body is controlled by the hormone ADH which acts on the kidney tubules.
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What is lost from the skin through sweat?
Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat.
Water, ions and urea are lost from the skin in sweat.
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(HT) How is water concentration controlled by ADH and what is this process controlled by?
(HT) ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is too concentrated and it causes more water to be reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubules. This is controlled by negative feedback.
(HT only) ADH is released by the pituitary gland when the blood is too concentrated and it causes more water to be reabsorbed back into the blood from the kidney tubules. This is controlled by negative feedback.
0
Can we control loss through the lungs and skin?
There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin.
There is no control over water, ion or urea loss by the lungs or skin.
0
How are people with kidney failure treated?
People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated by organ transplant or by using kidney dialysis. During dialysis ‘dirty’ blood (high in urea) is taken from a blood vessel in the arm, mixed with blood thinners to prevent clotting, and pumped into a dialysis machine. Inside the machine - separated by a partially permeable membrane the blood flows in the opposite direction to dialysis fluid, allowing exchange to occur between the two where a concentration gradient exists.
People who suffer from kidney failure may be treated by organ transplant or by using kidney dialysis. Students should know the basic principles of dialysis.
0
What is lost in urine?
Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys in the urine.
Excess water, ions and urea are removed via the kidneys in the urine.
0
What happens to body cells if they lose of gain too much water?
If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function efficiently.
If body cells lose or gain too much water by osmosis they do not function efficiently
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(HT) Where do excess amino acids come from and how do we safely get rid of them?
(HT) The digestion of proteins from the diet results in excess amino acids which need to be excreted safely. In the liver these amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia. Ammonia is toxic and so it is immediately converted to urea for safe excretion.
(HT only) The digestion of proteins from the diet results in excess amino acids which need to be excreted safely. In the liver these amino acids are deaminated to form ammonia. Ammonia is toxic and so it is immediately converted to urea for safe excretion.
0
What is the function of the kidneys?
The function of the kidneys is to maintain water balance by reabsorbing water from the blooodstream into the cells until balance is restored.
Students should be able to describe the function of kidneys in maintaining the water balance of the body.
0
How do the kidneys produce urine?
The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption of useful substances such as glucose, some ions and water.
The kidneys produce urine by filtration of the blood and selective reabsorption of useful substances such as glucose, some ions and water.
0
What is the function of the brain and what is its structure?
The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions.
The brain controls complex behaviour. It is made of billions of interconnected neurones and has different regions that carry out different functions.
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What are the functions of the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and medulla?
The cerebral cortex controls personality, memory and conscious though. The cerebellum controls balance and co-ordination of movement and the medulla controls the heart rate and breathing rate.
Students should be able to identify the cerebral cortex, cerebellum and medulla on a diagram of the brain, and describe their functions
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(HT only) Why is it so hard to treat damage to the brain?
(HT only) Unlike other cells brain cells cannot re-grow.Therefore when damage occurs the cells cannot be saved. This means that brain damage tends to be permanent.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain some of the difficulties of investigating brain function and treating brain damage and disease.
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(HT only) How did neuroscientists discover the functions of the different parts of the brain?
(HT only) Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques.
(HT only) Neuroscientists have been able to map the regions of the brain to particular functions by studying patients with brain damage, electrically stimulating different parts of the brain and using MRI scanning techniques.
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(HT only) What characteristics of the brain make it difficult to treat and investigate brain disorders?
(HT only)The complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating brain disorders very difficult.
(HT only) The complexity and delicacy of the brain makes investigating and treating brain disorders very difficult.
0
How do the cilliary muscles and the suspensory ligaments allow the eye to focus on near or distant objects?
The cilliary muslces Adjust the shape of the lens to make it more or less curved, so as to increase or decrease the refraction of light and the suspensory ligaments Slacken or stretch as the ciliary muscles contract or relax, to adjust the thickness and curvature of the lens. This in turn allows differences in the refraction of light onto the retina and therefore allows the eye to focus.
Students should be able to relate the structures of the eye to their functions. This includes accommodation to focus on near or distant objects.
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How is the eye adapted to its function?
The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.
Another adaptation is to dim light - The eye is a sense organ containing receptors sensitive to light intensity and colour.
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How are the structures of the following related to their functions: - retina - optic nerve - sclera - cornea - iris - ciliary muscles - suspensory ligaments?
Retina - contains the photo receptors to allow us to see. Optic nerve - Transmits signals from the photo receptors to the CNS through being a nerve cell. Sclera - Relatively tough outer casing of the eye for protection. Cornea - Transparent layer to allow light in. IT is curved to refract light. Iris - made of muscle to alter the amount of light entering the eye. Ciliary muscles - made of muscular tissue which contract or relax to move the suspensory ligaments. Suspensory ligaments - attached to the ciliary muscles and lens to aid accommodation.
Students should be able to identify the following structures on a diagram of the eye and explain how their structure is related to their function: ? retina ? optic nerve ? sclera ? cornea ? iris ? ciliary muscles ? suspensory ligaments.
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What is accommodation?
Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects.
Accommodation is the process of changing the shape of the lens to focus on near or distant objects.
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What processes must the eye go through in order to focus on a near object or on a distant object?
To focus on a near object the eye must do the following: 1. The ciliary muscles contract. 2. The suspensory ligaments loosen. 3. The lens is then thicker and refracts light rays strongly. To focus on a distant object: - The ciliary muscles relax. - The suspensory ligaments are pulled tight - The lens is then pulled thin and only slightly refracts light rays.
To focus on a near object: ???? the ciliary muscles contract ?? the suspensory ligaments loosen ???? the lens is then thicker and refracts light rays strongly. To focus on a distant object: ? the ciliary muscles relax ? the suspensory ligaments are pulled tight ? the lens is then pulled thin and only slightly refracts light rays.
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What are myopia and hyperopia and how do they affect the eye?
Myopia is short sightedness and hyperopia is long sightedness and this causes rays of light to not focus on the retina.
Two common defects of the eyes are myopia (short sightedness) and hyperopia (long sightedness) in which rays of light do not focus on the retina. ???
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What are myopia and hyperopia usually treated with and how do they help?
Generally these defects are treated with spectacle lenses which refract the light rays so that they do focus on the retina.
Generally these defects are treated with spectacle lenses which refract the light rays so that they do focus on the retina.
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What new technologies are there in place to treat eye defects?
New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser surgery to change the shape of the cornea and a replacement lens in the eye.
New technologies now include hard and soft contact lenses, laser surgery to change the shape of the cornea and a replacement lens in the eye.
0
What controls body temperature and how does it do it?
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood.
Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the brain. The thermoregulatory centre contains receptors sensitive to the temperature of the blood.
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What is the role of the skin in monitoring body temperature?
The skin contains receptors which detect changes in temperature and send impulses to the brain.
The skin contains receptors which detect changes in temperature and send impulses to the brain.
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What happens to the body when the core body temperature is too low?
If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweat is produced from the sweat glands.
If the body temperature is too high, blood vessels dilate (vasodilation) and sweat is produced from the sweat glands.
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How do vasodilation and sweating help cool down the body?
Vasodilation and sweating transfer thermal energy from the skin to the environment.
Both these mechanisms cause a transfer of energy from the skin to the environment.
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What happens to the body when its core temperature is too low?
If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction), sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver).
If the body temperature is too low, blood vessels constrict (vasoconstriction), sweating stops and skeletal muscles contract (shiver).
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(HT only) How does vasoconstriction help increase the body temperature?
(HT only) Vasoconstriction causes blood flow to the skin to decrease and slow down therefore decreasing the amount of energy lost to the environment from the skin.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how these mechanisms lower or raise body temperature in a given context.
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What do reproductive hormones do to the body during puberty?
During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to develop.
During puberty reproductive hormones cause secondary sex characteristics to develop.
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What is the main female reproductive hormone and where is it produced?
Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in the ovary.
Oestrogen is the main female reproductive hormone produced in the ovary.
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What is ovulation and how often does it occur?
At puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released approximately every 28 days. This is called ovulation.
At puberty eggs begin to mature and one is released approximately every 28 days. This is called ovulation
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Where is testosterone produced and what is its role?
Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by the testes and it stimulates sperm production.
Testosterone is the main male reproductive hormone produced by the testes and it stimulates sperm production.
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Is there just one hormone involved in the menstruation of women or are there several?
There are several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
Several hormones are involved in the menstrual cycle of a woman.
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What is the role of follicle stimulating hormone?
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the ovary.
Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes maturation of an egg in the ovary.
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What is the role of luteinising hormone?
Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg.
Luteinising hormone (LH) stimulates the release of the egg.
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Which hormones are involved in maintaining the uterus lining?
Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus lining.
Oestrogen and progesterone are involved in maintaining the uterus lining
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(HT only) How do FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone interact in the menstrual cycle?
(HT only) FSH causes the ovaries to secrete oestrogen.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain the interactions of FSH, oestrogen, LH and progesterone, in the control of the menstrual cycle
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Which of the hormones shows the sharpest spike in a graph of hormone levels during the menstrual cycle?
LH shows a sharp spike to cause the release of an egg (ovulation) and then drops down low after it.
(HT only) Students should be able to extract and interpret data from graphs showing hormone levels during the menstrual cycle.
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Give an advantage and disadvantage of condoms, the pill and the implant.
Condoms - A - also protect against STIs - D - not quite as effective as some hormonal methods. Pill - A - Highly effective if used correctly - D - needs to be remembered to be taken. Implant - A - doesn't need to be remembered each day - D - Sometimes long-term protection is not suitable.
Students should be able to evaluate the different hormonal and non- hormonal methods of contraception.
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What are the two categories of contraception?
Hormonal and non-hormonal/barrier methods.
Fertility can be controlled by a variety of hormonal and non-hormonal methods of contraception.
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Name at least 7 forms of contraception and how they work.
These include: ? oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature ? injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs for a number of months or years ? barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which prevent the sperm reaching an egg ? intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo or release a hormone ? spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm ? abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct ? surgical methods of male and female sterilisation.
These include: ? oral contraceptives that contain hormones to inhibit FSH production so that no eggs mature ? injection, implant or skin patch of slow release progesterone to inhibit the maturation and release of eggs for a number of months or years ? barrier methods such as condoms and diaphragms which prevent the sperm reaching an egg ? intrauterine devices which prevent the implantation of an embryo or release a hormone ? spermicidal agents which kill or disable sperm ? abstaining from intercourse when an egg may be in the oviduct ? surgical methods of male and female sterilisation. Explain everyday and technological applications of science; evaluate associated personal, social, economic and environmental implications; and make decisions based on the evaluation of evidence and arguments.
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(HT) Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?
(HT) FSH - promotes the maturation of more eggs. These multiple eggs can increase the chance of conceiving or be used in IVF. LH - to cause the release of those mature eggs.
(HT) Explain the use of hormones in modern reproductive technologies to treat infertility
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(HT) How has developments in microscope technology and techniques enabled IVF treatment to improve?
(HT) Microscopes can be used to monitor for fertilisation and development into embryos.
(HT) Explain how developments of microscopy techniques have enabled IVF treatments to develop.
0
(HT) Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?Which hormones can be used to treat infertility and how is it used?
(HT) FSH - promotes the maturation of more eggs. These multiple eggs can increase the chance of conceiving or be used in IVF. LH - to cause the release of those mature eggs.
This includes giving FSH and LH in a ?fertility drug? to a woman. She may then become pregnant in the normal way. (HT only)
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(HT) What are some social and ethical issues associated with IVF treatment?
(HT) IVF costs the NHS money, increased number of babies being born, embryos that are not used may be destroyed. Some people consider embryos to be new lives and view their destruction as unethical. These could also be used for research.
Understand social and ethical issues associated with IVF treatments (HT only)
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(HT) What are some of the disadvantages of IVF?
(HT) Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a baby of her own: ? it is very emotionally and physically stressful ? the success rates are not high ? it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the mother
Although fertility treatment gives a woman the chance to have a baby of her own: ? it is very emotionally and physically stressful ? the success rates are not high ? it can lead to multiple births which are a risk to both the babies and the mother. (HT only)
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(HT) Describe the stages of IVF.
(HT) IVF involves giving a mother FSH and LH to stimulate the maturation of several eggs. The eggs are collected from the mother and fertilised by sperm from the father in a dish in the laboratory. The fertilised eggs develop into embryos. At the stage when they are tiny balls of cells one or two embryos are inserted into the mother's uterus (womb)
Evaluate from the perspective of patients and doctors the methods of treating infertility. (HT only)
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(Separates only) What are the hormonal responses in plants to light and gravity called?
Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth and responses to light (phototropism) and gravity (gravitropism or geotropism).
(Separates only) Plants produce hormones to coordinate and control growth and responses to light (phototropism) and gravity (gravitropism or geotropism).
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(Separates only) What causes the unequal growth rates in shoots and roots that means plants can grow in specific directions?
Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots
(Separates only) Unequal distributions of auxin cause unequal growth rates in plant roots and shoots. (Required Practical)
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(HT) What role does Gibberellins have in a plant?
(HT) Gibberellins are important in initiating seed germination.
(Separates only) (HT only) Gibberellins are important in initiating seed germination.
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(HT) What role does Ethene have in a plant?
(HT) Ethene controls cell division and ripening of fruits.
(Separates only) (HT only) Ethene controls cell division and ripening of fruits.
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(Separates only) Give some uses of plant hormones that can be used to control plant growth
selective weedkillers, rooting powders (auxins), seedless fruits.
(Separates only) Students should be able to describe the effects of some plant hormones and the different ways people use them to control plant growth.
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(Separates only) What are plant hormones used by people in?
Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture
(Separates only) Plant growth hormones are used in agriculture and horticulture
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(Separates only) What negative effect can the use of hormones as weed killers have?
Everyday use of hormones as weed killers has an effect on biodiversity.
(Separates only) Understand how the everyday use of hormones as weed killers has an effect on biodiversity.
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(Separates only) How do people use auxins?
Auxins are used: ? as weed killers ? as rooting powders ? for promoting growth in tissue culture.
(Separates only) Auxins are used: ? as weed killers ? as rooting powders ? for promoting growth in tissue culture.
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(Separates only) How do people use ethene?
Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage and transport.
(Separates only) Ethene is used in the food industry to control ripening of fruit during storage and transport.
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(Separates only) How do people use Gibberellins?
Gibberellins can be used to end seed dormancy, promote flowering and increase fruit size.
(Separates only) Gibberellins can be used to: ? end seed dormancy ? promote flowering ? increase fruit size.
0
How is the structure of DNA described and what is a genome?
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix. The genome is the set of chromosomes in each haploid cell in an organism.
Students should be able to describe the structure of DNA and define genome.
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Where is DNA found in a cell?
Nucleus
The genetic material in the nucleus of a cell is composed of a chemical called DNA.
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What is the structure of DNA like?
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix.
DNA is a polymer made up of two strands forming a double helix.
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How is DNA contained in the nucleus?
The DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes.
The DNA is contained in structures called chromosomes.
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What is a gene?
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.
A gene is a small section of DNA on a chromosome. Each gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids, to make a specific protein.
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What is a genome?
The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that organism.
The genome of an organism is the entire genetic material of that organism.
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Why is the study of the human genome important?
Develop medicines in the future
The whole human genome has now been studied and this will have great importance for medicine in the future.
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What is the importance of sutdying the human genome?
finding genes linked to different types of diseases, treating inherited disorders, using in tracing human migration patterns in the past
Students should be able to discuss the importance of understanding the human genome.
0
What is the structure of a nucleotide like?
Each nucleotide consists of a common sugar and phosphate group with one of four different bases attached to the sugar
Each nucleotide consists of a common sugar and phosphate group with one of four different bases attached to the sugar
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What are the letters used for the four DNA bases?
A, C, T and G.
DNA contains four bases, A, C, G and T.
0
What is DNA?
DNA is a polymer made of four different nucleotides.
Students should be able to describe DNA as a polymer made from four different nucleotides.
0
What controls which amino acid is made during protien synthesis?
A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid.
A sequence of three bases is the code for a particular amino acid.
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What controls which protien is made during protien synthesis?
The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein.
The order of bases controls the order in which amino acids are assembled to produce a particular protein.
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What are the different parts of DNA strcuture?
The long strands of DNA consist of alternating sugar and phosphate sections. Attached to each sugar is one of the four bases
The long strands of DNA consist of alternating sugar and phosphate sections. Attached to each sugar is one of the four bases
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What is the structure of a DNA polymer?
The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide units.
The DNA polymer is made up of repeating nucleotide units. Interpret a diagram of DNA structure but will not be required to reproduce it.
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What are the steps in protein synthesis? What happens in these steps?
The two steps in protein synthesis are transcription and translocation. During transcription an enzyme unwinds the DNA strands to make up two strands of RNA. Here complimentary bases match up with the RNA to form new strands. Then any sections of unused RNA are transcribed into proteins.
(HT only) Students should be able to recall a simple description of protein synthesis
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How does the structure of DNA affect the protien that is made during protien synthesis?
A set of three bases codes for a particular amino acid. The order of bases controls the order of animo acids, this controls what protien is made
explain simply how the structure of DNA affects the protein made
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How do genetic variants influence a persons phenotype through coding DNA and non coding DNA?
Coding DNA - by altering the activity of a protein Non-coding DNA - by altering how genes are expressed
describe how genetic variants may influence phenotype: a) in coding DNA by altering the activity of a protein: and b) in non-coding DNA by altering how genes are expressed
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What are the DNA base pairs?
In the complementary strands a C is always linked to a G on the opposite strand and a T to an A.
(HT only) In the complementary strands a C is always linked to a G on the opposite strand and a T to an A.
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How can a change in DNA structure result in a change in the protein synthesised by a gene?
A differnet order of DNA base pairs will cause a different amino acid to be made, this in turn could produce a different protein
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how a change in DNA structure may result in a change in the protein synthesised by a gene
0
Where does protein synthesis take place in a cell?
Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template.
(HT only) Proteins are synthesised on ribosomes, according to a template.
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What is the role of a carrier molecule in protein synthesis?
(HT only) Carrier molecules brings specific amino acids to add to the growing protein chain in the correct order
(HT only) Carrier molecules bring specific amino acids to add to the growing protein chain in the correct order
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Why is a proteins unique shape important?
This unique shape enables the proteins to do their job as enzymes, hormones or forming structures in the body such as collagen.
(HT only) When the protein chain is complete it folds up to form a unique shape. This unique shape enables the proteins to do their job as enzymes, hormones or forming structures in the body such as collagen.
0
What happens to the number of chromosomes in gametes from meiosis? How is the full number of chromosomes restored?
Meiosis halves the number of chromosomes. The full number is restored during fertilisation.
Students should be able to explain how meiosis halves the number of chromosomes in gametes and fertilisation restores the full number of chromosomes.
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How are gametes formed?
Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes.
Cells in reproductive organs divide by meiosis to form gametes.
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What happens when a cell divides to form gametes? Are the gametes genetically identical or different?
First copies of the genetic information are made. Then the cell divides twice to form four gametes each with a single set of chromosomes. All gametes are genetically different from each other.
When a cell divides to form gametes: ? copies of the genetic information are made ? the cell divides twice to form four gametes, each with a single set of chromosomes ? all gametes are genetically different from each other.
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What happens during fertilisation? What happens to the cells as the embryo grows?
The gametes join and this restores the number of chromosomes. The new cell then divdes by mitosis and the number of cells increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.
Gametes join at fertilisation to restore the normal number of chromosomes. The new cell divides by mitosis. The number of cells increases. As the embryo develops cells differentiate.
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What sort of cells are produced during meiosis?
Meiosis produces non-identical cells.
Meiosis leads to non-identical cells being formed
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What sort of cells are produced during mitosis?
Mitosis produces identical cells.
Mitosis leads to identical cells being formed.
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What happens during meiosis? What are examples of gametes in animals and flowering plants?
During sexual reproduction male and female gametes are fused. The gametes of animals are sperm and egg cells and the gametes of flowering plants are pollen and egg cells.
Sexual reproduction involves the joining (fusion) of male and female gametes: ? sperm and egg cells in animals ? pollen and egg cells in flowering plants.
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How is variety gained during sexual reproduction?
Genetic information is mixed during sexual reproduction which leads to variety.
In sexual reproduction there is mixing of genetic information which leads to variety in the offspring.
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What process allows gametes to be formed?
Gametes are formed through meiosis.
The formation of gametes involves meiosis.
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How is asexual reproduction different to sexual reproduction?
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.
Asexual reproduction involves only one parent and no fusion of gametes.
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How does asexual reproduction lead to clones?
There is no mixing of genetic information therefore all offspring is genetically identical.This is due to asexual reproduction using only mitosis.
There is no mixing of genetic information. This leads to genetically identical offspring (clones). Only mitosis is involved.
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What is the effect on the protein if one DNA base is altered due to a mutation?
Most do not alter the protein, or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed. (Mutations occur continuously)
(HT only) Mutations occur continuously. Most do not alter the protein, or only alter it slightly so that its appearance or function is not changed.
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What is the effect on the protein if a few DNA bases are altered due to continious mutations?
A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
(HT only) A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
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The normal coding for a gene is GGA ATG. What is the type of mutation for: 1. GGC ATG 2. GGA AT
1. Insertion 2. Deletions
(HT only) Modelling insertions and deletions in chromosomes to illustrate mutations
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Why does a having few mutations in the DNA code cause problems?
A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
(HT only) A few mutations code for an altered protein with a different shape. An enzyme may no longer fit the substrate binding site or a structural protein may lose its strength.
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How can mutations in non-coding parts of DNA affect how genes are expressed?
Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding parts of DNA can switch genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how genes are expressed.
(HT only) Not all parts of DNA code for proteins. Non-coding parts of DNA can switch genes on and off, so variations in these areas of DNA may affect how genes are expressed.
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What are the advantages of sexual reproduction?
The advantages of sexual reproduction are that: ? produces variation in the offspring ? if the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by natural selection ? natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to increase food production.
Advantages of sexual reproduction: ? produces variation in the offspring ? if the environment changes variation gives a survival advantage by natural selection ? natural selection can be speeded up by humans in selective breeding to increase food production.
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What are the advantages of asexual reproduction?
The advantages of asecual reproduction are that: ? only one parent needed ? more time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate ? faster than sexual reproduction ? many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favourable.
Advantages of asexual reproduction: ? only one parent needed ? more time and energy efficient as do not need to find a mate ? faster than sexual reproduction ? many identical offspring can be produced when conditions are favourable.
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Do all organisms have to reproduce only sexually or asexually?
Some organisms reproduce by both methods depending on the circumstances.
Some organisms reproduce by both methods depending on the circumstances.
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What is the definition for gamete?
The male and female sex cells (sperm and egg)
Students should be able to explain the term chromosome
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What is the definition for a chromosome?
thread-like strcutures in the cell nucleus that contain DNA
Students should be able to explain the term gene
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What is the definition for a allele?
different forms of a gene
Students should be able to explain the term allele
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What is the definition for a dominant?
an allele that is expressed when one or two copies are present, represented with a capital letter
Students should be able to explain the term dominant
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What is the definition for a recessive?
two copies of a recessive allele must be present for the characteristic to be expressed, represented by lowercase letter
Students should be able to explain the term recessive
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What is the definition for a homozygous?
where two alleles that are the same for a characteristic
Students should be able to explain the term homozygous
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What is the definition for a hetrozygous?
where two different alleles for a characteristic
Students should be able to explain the term hetrozygous
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What is the definition for a genotype?
the alleles present for a particular gene
Students should be able to explain the term genotype
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What is the definition for a phenotype?
the characteristic that is shown or expressed
Students should be able to explain the term phenotype
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Give two examples of characteristics that are controlled by a single gene
1. fur colour in mice 2. red-green colour blindness in humans
Some characteristics are controlled by a single gene, such as: fur colour in mice; and red-green colour blindness in humans. Each gene may have different forms called alleles.
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How are genotype and phenotype related?
The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to develop characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype.
The alleles present, or genotype, operate at a molecular level to develop characteristics that can be expressed as a phenotype.
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What is the phenotype when there is a dominant allele?
A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present.
A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is present.
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What is the phenotype when there are two recessive alleles?
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
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What is the difference between homozygous and hetrozygous alleles?
If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous for that trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous.
If the two alleles present are the same the organism is homozygous for that trait, but if the alleles are different they are heterozygous.
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Are most characteristics controlled by single genes or multiple genes interacting?
Multiple genes interacting
Most characteristics are a result of multiple genes interacting, rather than a single gene.
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What is the probability of a child having homozygous recessive alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
1:4 / 25%
Students should be able to understand the concept of probability in predicting the results of a single gene cross, but recall that most phenotype features are the result of multiple genes rather than single gene inheritance
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What is the probability of a child having hetrozygous alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
2:4 / 50%
Students should be able to use direct proportion and simple ratios to express the outcome of a genetic cross.
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What is the probability of a child having a diseases that is carried on a dominant alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
3:4 / 75%
Students should be able to complete a Punnett square diagram and extract and interpret information from genetic crosses and family trees.
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What is the probability of a child having homozygous dominant alleles if their parents are both hetrozygous for a trait?
1:4 / 25%
(HT only) Students should be able to construct a genetic cross by Punnett square diagram and use it to make predictions using the theory of probability
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How are inherited diseases passed on?
These disorders are caused by the inheritance of certain alleles.
Some disorders are inherited. These disorders are caused by the inheritance of certain alleles.
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What causes polydactyly?
Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele.
Polydactyly (having extra fingers or toes) is caused by a dominant allele.
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What causes cystic fibrosis?
Cystic fibrosis (a respitory disease) is caused by a recessive allele, so both parents must carry the gene in order for the offspring to have the disease.
Cystic fibrosis (a respitory disease) is caused by a recessive allele, so both parents must carry the gene in order for the offspring to have the disease.
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What are the economical, social and ethical issues concerning embryo screening?
Embyro screening is expensive, can damage/kill the embryo, can prevent suffering, some people believe all life is valueable despite disease
Students should make informed judgements about the economic, social and ethical issues concerning embryo screening, given appropriate information. Appreciate that embryo screening and gene therapy may alleviate suffering but consider the ethical issues which arise.
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How many chromosomes are found in an ordinary human body cell?
Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Ordinary human body cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
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What does the 23rd choromsome determine?
sex (male or female)
22 pairs control characteristics only, but one of the pairs carries the genes that determine sex.
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What is combination of sex chorosomes for a male and female?
? In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX). ? In males the chromosomes are different (XY).
? In females the sex chromosomes are the same (XX). ? In males the chromosomes are different (XY).
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Draw a genetic cross to show sex inheritance
Students should be able to carry out a genetic cross to show sex inheritance.
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What is the probability of having a male or female offpsring?
1:1 / 50%
Students should understand and use direct proportion and simple ratios in genetic crosses.
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How have organisms been classified traditionally and who by?
Traditionally living things have been classified into groups depending on their structure and characteristics in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus
Traditionally living things have been classified into groups depending on their structure and characteristics in a system developed by Carl Linnaeus
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What did Linnaeus classify all living things into?
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Linnaeus classified living things into kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
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How are organisms named scientifically?
Organisms are named scientifically first by the genus and then by the species.
Organisms are named by the binomial system of genus and species.
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What development lead to new models of classification and how?
As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed.
As evidence of internal structures became more developed due to improvements in microscopes, and the understanding of biochemical processes progressed, new models of classification were proposed. (WS) Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time.
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Who developed the 'three-domain system' and how are organisms in this system classified?
Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a ?three- domain system? developed by Carl Woese. In this system organisms are divided into: ? archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments) ? bacteria (true bacteria) ? eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals).
Due to evidence available from chemical analysis there is now a ?three- domain system? developed by Carl Woese. In this system organisms are divided into: ? archaea (primitive bacteria usually living in extreme environments) ? bacteria (true bacteria) ? eukaryota (which includes protists, fungi, plants and animals).
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Why are evolutionary trees used by scientists and what data do they use for it?
Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.
Evolutionary trees are a method used by scientists to show how they believe organisms are related. They use current classification data for living organisms and fossil data for extinct organisms.
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How does the genome and the environment influence the development of phenotype?
An organisms genome depends on the alleles that the organism inherits. Dominant characteristics inherited from the parents will be expressed always. If no dominant alleles are present then the recessive ones will be expressed. The environment can also affect certain phenotypes through variations in climate diet, physical accidents, culture and lifestyle.
Students should be able to describe simply how the genome and its interaction with the environment influence the development of the phenotype of an organism
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How do differences in the characteristics of individuals occur?
Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is called variation and may be due to differences in: - the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) - the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes) - a combination of genes and the environment
Differences in the characteristics of individuals in a population is called variation and may be due to differences in: - the genes they have inherited (genetic causes) - the conditions in which they have developed (environmental causes) - a combination of genes and the environment
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How much genetic variation is usually within a population?
There is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species.
Students should be able to state that there is usually extensive genetic variation within a population of a species
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When is a recessive allele expressed?
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present (therefore no dominant allele present).
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(Biology only) How often do mutations occur and how often do they lead to a new phenotype? What happens when a new phenotype is suited to an environmental change?
(Biology only) Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change it can lead to a relatively rapid change in the species.
(Biology only) Mutations occur continuously. Very rarely a mutation will lead to a new phenotype. If the new phenotype is suited to an environmental change it can lead to a relatively rapid change in the species. There are links with this content to Speciation (biology only).
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What is evolution?
Evolution is a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection which may result in the formation of a new species.
Students should be able to describe evolution as a change in the inherited characteristics of a population over time through a process of natural selection which may result in the formation of a new species.
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What does the theory of evolution state?
The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago.
The theory of evolution by natural selection states that all species of living things have evolved from simple life forms that first developed more than three billion years ago.
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How does evolution occur?
Evolution occurs through the natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their environment.
Students should be able to explain how evolution occurs through natural selection of variants that give rise to phenotypes best suited to their environment. Use the theory of evolution by natural selection in an explanation.
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How is a new species formed?
If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed two new species.
If two populations of one species become so different in phenotype that they can no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring they have formed two new species.
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What are the impacts of selective breeding of food plants and domesticated animals?
Selective breeding will lead to narrowing of the gene pool. This means that potential future diseases could be more problematic as a larger percentage of the population would be affected. Selective breeding would also reduce variety in the future and could lead to problems relating to recessive genes.
Students should be able to explain the impact of selective breeding of food plants and domesticated animals.
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What is selective breeding and how long have humans been doing it?
Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have been doing this for thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals.
Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular genetic characteristics. Humans have been doing this for thousands of years since they first bred food crops from wild plants and domesticated animals.
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How do humans carry out selective breeding?
Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired characteristic from a mixed population. They are bred together. From the offspring those with the desired characteristic are bred together. This continues over many generations until all the offspring show the desired characteristic.
Selective breeding involves choosing parents with the desired characteristic from a mixed population. They are bred together. From the offspring those with the desired characteristic are bred together. This continues over many generations until all the offspring show the desired characteristic.
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Why are certain characteristics chosen during selective breeding? What are some examples of these in plants and animals?
The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance: ? Disease resistance in food crops. ? Animals which produce more meat or milk. ? Domestic dogs with a gentle nature. ? Large or unusual flowers.
The characteristic can be chosen for usefulness or appearance: ? Disease resistance in food crops. ? Animals which produce more meat or milk. ? Domestic dogs with a gentle nature. ? Large or unusual flowers.
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What disadvantages can selective breeding have?
Selective breeding can lead to ?inbreeding? where some breeds are particularly prone to disease or inherited defects.
Selective breeding can lead to ?inbreeding? where some breeds are particularly prone to disease or inherited defects.
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What evidence is there to support Darwin's theory of evolution?
Evidence for Darwin's theory is now available as it has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is further evidence in the fossil record and the knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria.
Evidence for Darwin's theory is now available as it has been shown that characteristics are passed on to offspring in genes. There is further evidence in the fossil record and the knowledge of how resistance to antibiotics evolves in bacteria.
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How did Oregor Mendal develop our understanding of genetics?
Oregor Mendel (1822-1884) studied the inheritance of different characteristics in pea plants. He found that when he bred red-flowered plants with white-flowered plants, all the offspring produced red flowers. If he bred these plants with each other, most of the offspring had red flowers, but some had white. This was because the allele for red flowers is dominant, and the allele for white flowers is recessive.
Students should be able to describe the development of our understanding of genetics including the work of Mendel
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Why was the importance of Mendel's discovery not accepted until after his death?
It took long time for Mendel's ideas to be accepted. That was because scientists did not know about chromosomes and genes until after Mendel died. Also, Mendel was a monk, not a scientist, and his work was not widely published or published at all in any science journal.
Students should be able to understand why the importance of Mendel's discovery was not recognised until after his death.
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What observation did Mendel make of the inheritance of plants?
In the mid-19th century Oregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments on plants. One of his observations was that the inheritance of each characteristic is determined by ?units? that are passed on to descendants unchanged.
In the mid-19th century Oregor Mendel carried out breeding experiments on plants. One of his observations was that the inheritance of each characteristic is determined by ?units? that are passed on to descendants unchanged.
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What wasn't observed about cell division until the late 19th century?
The behaviour of chromosomes.
In the late 19th century behaviour of chromosomes during cell division was observed
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What happened in the early 20th century to link Mendel's 'units' and chromosomes and what idea did this lead to?
In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and Mendel?s ?units? behaved in similar ways. This led to the idea that the 'units', now called genes, were located on chromosomes.
In the early 20th century it was observed that chromosomes and Mendel?s ?units? behaved in similar ways. This led to the idea that the ?units?, now called genes, were located on chromosomes. There are links with this content to Oenetic inheritance.
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What happened in the mid-20th century to further develop gene theory?
In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and the mechanism of gene function worked out.
In the mid-20th century the structure of DNA was determined and the mechanism of gene function worked out. There are links with this content to Oenetic inheritance.
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What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism to give a desired characteristic.
Students should be able to describe genetic engineering as a process which involves modifying the genome of an organism by introducing a gene from another organism to give a desired characteristic
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What examples are there of genetic engineering in plant crops?
An example of genetic engineering is plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.
An example of genetic engineering is plant crops have been genetically engineered to be resistant to diseases or to produce bigger better fruits.
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(Biology only) What examples in medicine uses genetically engineered bacteria?
(Biology only) Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful substances such as human insulin to treat diabetes.
Bacterial cells have been genetically engineered to produce useful substances such as human insulin to treat diabetes. There are links with this content to role of biotechnology. (biology only).
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What are the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering in agriculture and medicine?
Some potential benefits of genetic engineering are improving yeild and productivity in crops for growing in harsher climates, giving rise to new potential medicines for hard to cure diseases and the potenital elimination of life threating genetic diseases. Some potential risks of genetic engineering are the introduction of resistant strains of detrimental micro-organism, lowering variation and therefore risking evolution and objections due to organisms becoming unatural and humans having too much power.
Students should be able to explain the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering in agriculture and in medicine and that some people have objections
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What occurs within the chromosomes during genetic engineering?
Genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ?cut out? and transferred to cells of other organisms.
In genetic engineering, genes from the chromosomes of humans and other organisms can be ?cut out? and transferred to cells of other organisms.
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What do we call crops that have genes from other organisms in them?
Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called genetically modified (GM) crops.
Crops that have had their genes modified in this way are called genetically modified (GM) crops.
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How does genetic modification increase the longevity of crops?
GM crops include ones that are resistant to insect attack or to herbicides.
GM crops include ones that are resistant to insect attack or to herbicides.
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How does genetic modification increase the yield of a crop?
GM crops generally show increased yields.
GM crops generally show increased yields.
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What concerns are there about GM crops?
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild flowers and insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully explored.
Concerns about GM crops include the effect on populations of wild flowers and insects. Some people feel the effects of eating GM crops on human health have not been fully explored.
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How is genetic modification important in medicine?
Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to overcome some inherited disorders.
Modern medical research is exploring the possibility of genetic modification to overcome some inherited disorders
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(HT only) What are the steps involved in genetic engineering?
(HT only) 1. enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus 2. the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells 3. genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics.
(HT only) In genetic engineering: - enzymes are used to isolate the required gene; this gene is inserted into a vector, usually a bacterial plasmid or a virus - the vector is used to insert the gene into the required cells - genes are transferred to the cells of animals, plants or microorganisms at an early stage in their development so that they develop with desired characteristics. Interpret information about genetic engineering techniques and to make informed judgements about issues concerning cloning and genetic engineering, including OM crops.
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How does the technique of tissue culturing enable cloning? Why is this important for plants?
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries.
Tissue culture: using small groups of cells from part of a plant to grow identical new plants. This is important for preserving rare plant species or commercially in nurseries.
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What way, other than tissue culture, can plants be cloned by gardeners?
Through using cuttings to produce many identical new plants from a parent plant.
Cuttings: an older, but simple, method used by gardeners to produce many identical new plants from a parent plant.
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How is embryo transplant cloning carried out?
Embryo transplant cloning happens by splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers.
Embryo transplants: splitting apart cells from a developing animal embryo before they become specialised, then transplanting the identical embryos into host mothers.
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What are the steps involved in adult cell cloning?
1. The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell. 2. The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell. 3. An electric shock stimulates the egg cell to divide to form an embryo. 4. These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell. 5. When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.
The process of adult cell cloning: ? The nucleus is removed from an unfertilised egg cell. ? The nucleus from an adult body cell, such as a skin cell, is inserted into the egg cell. ? An electric shock stimulates the egg cell to divide to form an embryo. ? These embryo cells contain the same genetic information as the adult skin cell. ? When the embryo has developed into a ball of cells, it is inserted into the womb of an adult female to continue its development.
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What are the potential benefits and risks involved in cloning and why do some people object?
Benefits: All the new plants are genetically identical ? they will all have the desired characteristics. Organisms that are difficult or slow to breed normally can be reproduced quickly. Some plant varieties do not produce seeds, others have seeds that are dormant for long periods. Risks: If a clone is susceptible to disease or changes in environment, then all the clones will be susceptible. It will lead to less variation, and less opportunity to create new varieties in the future. Some people object to cloning as they feel it is unethical and unatural to clone. Some people object on religious grounds as well.
Explain the potential benefits and risks of cloning in agriculture and in medicine and that some people have ethical objections.
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How did Charles Darwin come up with the theory of evolution by natural selection?
Charles Darwin, as a result of observations on a round the world expedition, backed by years of experimentation and discussion and linked to developing knowledge of geology and fossils, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
Charles Darwin, as a result of observations on a round the world expedition, backed by years of experimentation and discussion and linked to developing knowledge of geology and fossils, proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.
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What does the theory of eveolution by natural selection involve?
Theory of evolution by natural selection invovles: ? Individual organisms within a particular species show a wide range of variation for a characteristic. ? Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully. ? The characteristics that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation.
Theory of evolution by natural selection invovles: ? Individual organisms within a particular species show a wide range of variation for a characteristic. ? Individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive to breed successfully. ? The characteristics that have enabled these individuals to survive are then passed on to the next generation.
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What lead to the development of the theory of evolution by natural selection?
The theory of evolution by natural selection was developed over time and from information gathered by many scientists and he development of the social climate at the time.
Students should appreciate that the theory of evolution by natural selection developed over time and from information gathered by many scientists.
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What was the name of the book that Charles Darwin published his ideas in andwere people happy with it?
Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859). There was much controversy surrounding these revolutionary new ideas.
Darwin published his ideas in On the Origin of Species (1859). There was much controversy surrounding these revolutionary new ideas.
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Why did it take a long time for the theory of evolution by natural selection to be accepted?
The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted because: ? the theory challenged the idea that Ood made all the animals and plants that live on Earth ? there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists ? the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was published.
The theory of evolution by natural selection was only gradually accepted because: ? the theory challenged the idea that Ood made all the animals and plants that live on Earth ? there was insufficient evidence at the time the theory was published to convince many scientists ? the mechanism of inheritance and variation was not known until 50 years after the theory was published.
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What was Lamarck's theory?
Lamarck's theory was that changes in an organism only occur during its lifetime and are then inhertted.
Other theories, including that of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, are based mainly on the idea that changes that occur in an organism during its lifetime can be inherited. We now know that in the vast majority of cases this type of inheritance cannot occur. A study of creationism is not required.
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What was the impact of Darwin and Wallace's ideas?
Darwin and Wallace's ideas lead to the realisation that life on earth evolved from a common organism eventually branching off into different species and families.
Students should be able to explain the impact of these ideas on biology
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Who was Alfred Russell Wallace and how is he linked to Charles Darwin?
Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. He published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 which prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year.
Alfred Russel Wallace independently proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection. He published joint writings with Darwin in 1858 which prompted Darwin to publish On the Origin of Species (1859) the following year.
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What is Wallace best known for?
Wallace worked worldwide gathering evidence for evolutionary theory. He is best known for his work on warning colouration in animals and his theory of speciation.
Wallace worked worldwide gathering evidence for evolutionary theory. He is best known for his work on warning colouration in animals and his theory of speciation.
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What was needed to support Alfred Wallace's work in order to lead to our current understanding of the theory of speciation?
Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over time has led to our current understanding of the theory of speciation.
Alfred Wallace did much pioneering work on speciation but more evidence over time has led to our current understanding of the theory of speciation
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In what ways do new species arise? How are these described?
New species can arise as a result of: Isolation - where two species become geographically separated each evolving in such a way that they can no longer breed. Oenetic variation - where each population has a wide range of alleles that control their characteristics Natural selection - where the alleles which help an organism to survive are selected in each population Speciation - where the populations become so different that successful interbreeding cannot happen anymore
Students should be able to describe the steps which give rise to new species. The theory of speciation has developed over time
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What evidence is there now to support Darwin'stheory of evolution?
We have now unearthed fossils which we have been able to sequence the genomes of as well aslook at similar characteristics which have developed over time in a range of fossilised remains. Testing of antibiotic resistant bacteria has also shown rapid evolution within the species in order to help them survive treatment with antibiotics.
Students should be able to describe the evidence for evolution including fossils and antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
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What are fossils?
Fossils are the remains of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks.
Fossils are the remains of organisms from millions of years ago, which are found in rocks.
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How can fossils be formed?
Fossils may be formed: ? from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for decay are absent ? when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay ? as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces.
Fossils may be formed: - from parts of organisms that have not decayed because one or more of the conditions needed for decay are absent - when parts of the organism are replaced by minerals as they decay - as preserved traces of organisms, such as footprints, burrows and rootlet traces.
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Why is there little evidence of very early life forms?
Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few traces behind.
Many early forms of life were soft-bodied, which means that they have left few traces behind.
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Why can we not be certain of how life on earthformed even from hard bodied organisms?
What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity. This is why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.
What traces there were have been mainly destroyed by geological activity. This is why scientists cannot be certain about how life began on Earth.
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What is the main thing we can learn from fossils?
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
We can learn from fossils how much or how little different organisms have changed as life developed on Earth.
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Why is the fossil record described as incomplete?
Due to the constantly changing earth many fossils have been lost to us due to geographical changes suchas volcanoes and earth quakes. Some fossils have simply yet to be found and others still lie beneath the oceans.
Appreciate why the fossil record is incomplete
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How do scientific methods and theories develop over time?
Scientists constantly refine scientific methods by replicating them and finding and fixing flaws through new technology or knowledge. Theories are also challenged and evidence gathered regularly.
Understand how scientific methods and theories develop over time.
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What is extinction?
Extinction occurs when there are remaining individuals or a species still alive.
Extinctions occur when there are no remaining individuals of a species still alive.
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What are some of the factors that contribute to extinction?
Extinctions can occur when: changes to the environment occur, such as a change in climate, new diseases, new predators and new competitors.
Students should be able to describe factors which may contribute to the extinction of a species
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Why can bacteria evolve rapidly?
Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate.
Bacteria can evolve rapidly because they reproduce at a fast rate.
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What are the stages of antibacterial resistance?
Stages of antibacterial resistance include: 1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. 2. Some strains might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. 3. They survive and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain rises. 4. The resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
Stages of antibacterial resistance include: 1. Mutations of bacterial pathogens produce new strains. 2. Some strains might be resistant to antibiotics, and so are not killed. 3. They survive and reproduce, so the population of the resistant strain rises. 4. The resistant strain will then spread because people are not immune to it and there is no effective treatment.
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What is the bacteria MRSA resistant to?
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics.
MRSA is resistant to antibiotics. There are links with this content to Antibiotics and painkillers.
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What should be done to reduce the rate of development of antibiotc resistant bacteria?
To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains: ? doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as treating non-serious or viral infections ? patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains ? the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.
To reduce the rate of development of antibiotic resistant strains: ? doctors should not prescribe antibiotics inappropriately, such as treating non-serious or viral infections ? patients should complete their course of antibiotics so all bacteria are killed and none survive to mutate and form resistant strains ? the agricultural use of antibiotics should be restricted.
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Why can't medical professionals just produce new antibiotics to fight resistant bacteria?
The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains
The development of new antibiotics is costly and slow. It is unlikely to keep up with the emergence of new resistant strains
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What are the different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual organisms to the whole ecosystem?
Individual, Population, Community, Ecosystem.
Students should be able to describe different levels of organisation in an ecosystem from individual organisms to the whole ecosystem
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What is the importance of interdependence and competition in a community?
Interdependence - balance in population numbers of species, increased net productivity, predator prey cycles, mutualistic relationships. Competition - gives something natural selection to work for, separation of niches between species.
Students should be able to describe the importance of interdependence and competition in a community.
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What factors are organisms competing for in a given habitat?
plants are competing for light, space, nutrients, water. Animals are competing for food, water, shelter, territory, mates.
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information suggest the factors for which organisms are competing in a given habitat
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What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotic) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment.
An ecosystem is the interaction of a community of living organisms (biotic) with the non-living (abiotic) parts of their environment.
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What do organisms require to survive?
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there.
To survive and reproduce, organisms require a supply of materials from their surroundings and from the other living organisms there.
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What do plants compete for?
Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for light and space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil.
Plants in a community or habitat often compete with each other for light and space, and for water and mineral ions from the soil.
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What do animals compete for?
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
Animals often compete with each other for food, mates and territory.
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What do species within a community depend on each other for?
Within a community each species depends on other species for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is removed it can affect the whole community. This is called interdependence.
Within a community each species depends on other species for food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc. If one species is removed it can affect the whole community. This is called interdependence.
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What is a stable community?
A stable community is one where all the species and environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes remain fairly constant.
A stable community is one where all the species and environmental factors are in balance so that population sizes remain fairly constant.
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What is an abiotic factor?
An abiotic factor is a non-living factor.
Students should be able to explain how a change in an abiotic factor would affect a given community given appropriate data or context.
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What abiotic (non-living) factors affect a community?
Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are: light intensity temperature moisture levels soil pH and mineral content wind intensity and direction carbon dioxide levels for plants oxygen levels for aquatic animals.
Abiotic (non-living) factors which can affect a community are: - light intensity - temperature - moisture levels - soil pH and mineral content - wind intensity and direction - carbon dioxide levels for plants - oxygen levels for aquatic animals.
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What is a biotic factor?
A living factor.
Students should be able to explain how a change in a biotic factor might affect a given community given appropriate data or context.
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What types of Biotic (living) factors affect a community?
Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are: ? availability of food ? new predators arriving ? new pathogens ? one species outcompeting another so the numbers are no longer sufficient to breed.
Biotic (living) factors which can affect a community are: - availability of food - new predators arriving - new pathogens - one species out-competing another so the numbers are no longer sufficient to breed.
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What are the producers of biomass for life on Earth?
photosynthetic organisms are the producers of biomass for life on Earth.
Students should understand that photosynthetic organisms are the producers of biomass for life on Earth.
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How can feeding relationships be represented?
Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by food chains.
Feeding relationships within a community can be represented by food chains.
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What do all food chains begin with?
Food chains begin with a producer which synthesises molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which makes glucose by photosynthesis.
All food chains begin with a producer which synthesises molecules. This is usually a green plant or alga which makes glucose by photosynthesis.
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What is the difference between mean, mode and median?
Mean = add all the repeats up and divide by the number of repeats. Mode = the number that occurs the most. Median = the middle number when all repeats are put in order from smallest to largest
In relation to abundance of organisms students should be able to understand the terms mean, mode and median (MS)
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What is the order of energy transfer between secondary consumer, tertiary consumer, producer and primary consumer
producer -> primary consumer -> secondary consumer -> tertiary consumer.
Producers are eaten by primary consumers, which in turn may be eaten by secondary consumers and then tertiary consumers
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What is an organism that eats a consumer called? What is a consumer that is eaten by another consumer called?
Predator eats another consumer. Prey are consumers that are eaten by another consumer.
Consumers that kill and eat other animals are predators, and those eaten are prey.
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What is a predator-prey cycle?
In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in cycles, dependent on the numbers of each.
In a stable community the numbers of predators and prey rise and fall in cycles.
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What is an adaptation?
A characteristic about a species that allows it to be suited to the environment it lives.
Students should be able to, when provided with appropriate information suggest how organisms are adapted to the conditions in which they live.
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How are organisms adapted to live in their natural environment?
Organisms become adapted to their natural environment by evolution through natural selection.
Students should be able to explain how organisms are adapted to live in their natural environment, given appropriate information.
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What are the three types of adaptations organisms can have to survive in the conditions that they live?
Adaptations may be structural, behavioural or functional
Organisms have features (adaptations) that enable them to survive in the conditions in which they normally live. These adaptations may be structural, behavioural or functional
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What is an extremophile?
Organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as high temperature, pressure, or salt concentration
Some organisms live in environments that are very extreme, such as at high temperature, pressure, or salt concentration. These organisms are called extremophiles.
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What type of microbe lives in deep sea vents?
Bacteria live in deep sea vents.
Bacteria living in deep sea vents are extremophiles.
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When would a transect line be used?
A transect line would be used to see a pattern/trend/correlation across a distance of an ecosystem in relation to an independent variable.
A range of experimental methods using transects and quadrats are used by ecologists to determine the distribution and abundance of species in an ecosystem. Required Practical 9 - Sampling Techniques (AT skills 1,3,4,6,8)
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What different parts of the ecosystem do materials cycle through?
Many different materials cycle through the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem.
Students should recall that many different materials cycle through the abiotic and biotic components of an ecosystem
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Why is it important that carbon and water are cycled through the ecosystem.
It is important that carbon and water are cycled through the ecosystem because there is only a finite number atoms.
Students should be able to explain the importance of the carbon and water cycles to living organisms
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Why do materials need to be recycled?
Materials need to be recycled to provide the building blocks for future organisms.
All materials in the living world are recycled to provide the building blocks for future organisms. Students are not expected to study the nitrogen cycle.
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What process are carbon to be cycled from A) carbon dioxide to producers, B) producers to consumers, C) Producers/consumers/decomposers to carbon dioxide and D) fossil fuels to carbon dioxide
A) Photosynthesis cycles carbon dioxide to producers. B) Feeding cycles producers to consumers. C) Respiration cycles producers/consumers/decomposers to carbon dioxide D) Combustion cycles fossil fuels to carbon dioxide.
The carbon cycle returns carbon from organisms to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide to be used by plants in photosynthesis.
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How do microorganisms help to cycle material through an ecosystem?
Microorganisms help cycling material by returning carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil.
Students should be able to explain the role of microorganisms in cycling materials through an ecosystem by returning carbon to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide and mineral ions to the soil.
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Why is precipitation important for organisms in ecosystems?
Precipitation provides fresh water for plants and animals on land before it drains into the seas.
The water cycle provides fresh water for plants and animals on land before draining into the seas.
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How does water get from the land to the air and the air back to the land?
water turns to water vapour in the air through evaporation and returns to the land through precipitation.
Water is continuously evaporated and precipitated.
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What three factors affect the rate of decay of biological material?
Temperature, water and the availability of oxygen affect the rate of decay.
Students should be able to explain how temperature, water and availability of oxygen affect the rate of decay of biological material.
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Name two groups of people would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
gardeners and farmers would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
Gardeners and farmers try to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste biological material.
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Why would gardeners and farmers want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste material.
gardeners and farmers would want to provide optimum conditions for rapid decay of waste material to provide compost as a natural fertiliser for their soils for growing plants.
The compost produced is used as a natural fertiliser for growing garden plants or crops.
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Under what conditions can decay produce methane that can be used a biogas fuel?
Anaerobic condition can produce methane gas. Biogas generators can be used to produce methane gas as a fuel.
Anaerobic decay produces methane gas. Biogas generators can be used to produce methane gas as a fuel.
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How might changes to the environment affect species?
Environmental changes affect the distribution of species in an ecosystem.
Environmental changes affect the distribution of species in an ecosystem.
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What are potential environmental changes?
Environmental changes include: temperature availability of water composition of atmospheric gases.
These changes include: - temperature - availability of water - composition of atmospheric gases.
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What might be some causes of changes in the environment?
Environmental changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused by human interaction.
The changes may be seasonal, geographic or caused by human interaction.
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How can an increase in human population affect pollution?
Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the standard of living mean that increasingly more resources are used and more waste is produced. Unless waste and chemical materials are properly handled, more pollution will be caused.
Rapid growth in the human population and an increase in the standard of living mean that increasingly more resources are used and more waste is produced. Unless waste and chemical materials are properly handled, more pollution will be caused.
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Where can pollution occur and what does it occur from?
Pollution can occur: - in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals - in air, from smoke and acidic gases - on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals.
Pollution can occur: ? in water, from sewage, fertiliser or toxic chemicals ? in air, from smoke and acidic gases ? on land, from landfill and from toxic chemicals.
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How can pollution affect biodiversity?
Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity.
Pollution kills plants and animals which can reduce biodiversity
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What are the environmental implications of deforestation?
Deforestation vastly affects the environment as well as reducing biodiversity. This occurs due to forest habitats being destroyed, soil erosion increasing, which causes barren land, flooding and land slides. Also atmospheric pollution is caused when forests are cleared by burning trees increasing global warming.
(WS) Evaluate the environmental implications of deforestation
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What are the biological consequences of global warming?
A rise of just a few degrees in world temperatures will have a dramatic impact on the climate: Global weather patterns will change, causing drought in some places and flooding in others. Melting of polar ice caps will raise sea levels, causing increased coastal erosion and flooding of low-lying land – including land where major cities lie.
Students should be able to describe some of the biological consequences of global warming
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Why is global warming increasing?
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are increasing, and these contribute to global warming.
Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere are increasing, and contribute to ?global warming?.
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What does the scientific consensus say about global warming and climate change?
The scientific consensus about global warming and climate change is based on systematic reviews of thousands of peer reviewed publications.
(WS) Understand that the scientific consensus about global warming and climate change is based on systematic reviews of thousands of peer reviewed publications.
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N/A
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(WS) Explain why evidence is uncertain or incomplete in a complex context
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What is the definition of biodiversity?
Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on earth, or within an ecosystem.
Biodiversity is the variety of all the different species of organisms on earth, or within an ecosystem.
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How do humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals?
Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and plants by building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste.
Humans reduce the amount of land available for other animals and plants by building, quarrying, farming and dumping waste
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What is the benefit of having a great biodiversity?
A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance of the physical environment.
A great biodiversity ensures the stability of ecosystems by reducing the dependence of one species on another for food, shelter and the maintenance of the physical environment.
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How does the destruction of peat bogs affect biodiversity?
The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce garden compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the variety of different plant, animal and microorganism species that live there (biodiversity).
The destruction of peat bogs, and other areas of peat to produce garden compost, reduces the area of this habitat and thus the variety of different plant, animal and microorganism species that live there (biodiversity).
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Why is it so important to maintain biodiversity?
The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining a good level of biodiversity.
The future of the human species on Earth relies on us maintaining a good level of biodiversity.
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What does the decay or burning of peat lead to?
The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
The decay or burning of the peat releases carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
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What effect to human activities have on biodiversity in general?
Many human activities are reducing biodiversity and only recently have measures been taken to try to stop this reduction.
Many human activities are reducing biodiversity and only recently have measures been taken to try to stop this reduction.
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Why is there conflict of opinion when it comes to the peat industry?
There is a need for cheap available compost to increase food production and the need to conserve peat bogs and peatlands as habitats for biodiversity and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
(WS) Understand the conflict between the need for cheap available compost to increase food production and the need to conserve peat bogs and peatlands as habitats for biodiversity and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions
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What effect do waste, deforestation and global warming have on biodiversity?
Deforestation destroys the habitats of many species and therefore reduces their numbers within an environment. This reduces biodiversity drastically. Waste can have toxic effects on many species and therefore reduces numbers. In other cases, such as with algae, certain wastes can increase the numbers of certain species meaning they have a detrimental effect on the others around them. Global warming is causing the Earth's temperature to increase. This is having an effect on many species as it is changing their environment and therefore causing them problems such as lack of food or habitat.
(WS) Explain how waste, deforestation and global warming have an impact on biodiversity.
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What two main reasons are there for large-scale deforestation in tropical areas?
Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred due to: - providing land for cattle and rice fields - growing crops for biofuels.
Large-scale deforestation in tropical areas has occurred to: ? provide land for cattle and rice fields ? grow crops for biofuels.
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What is the impact of both positive and negative human interactions in an ecosystem?
Positive impact increases population levels of certain species in a food chain. Negative impacts decrease population levels of certain species.
Students should be able to describe both positive and negative human interactions in an ecosystem and explain their impact on biodiversity.
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Why have scientists and concerned citizens had to put programmes in place to protect the environment?
Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to reduce the negative effects of humans on ecosystems and biodiversity.
Scientists and concerned citizens have put in place programmes to reduce the negative effects of humans on ecosystems and biodiversity
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What are some of the programmes put in place by scientists and concerned citizens to protect the environment?
Some of the programmes put in place to protect the environment are: - breeding programmes for endangered species - protection and regeneration of rare habitats - reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural areas where farmers grow only one type of crop - reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by some governments - recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill.
These include: ? breeding programmes for endangered species ? protection and regeneration of rare habitats ? reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows in agricultural areas where farmers grow only one type of crop ? reduction of deforestation and carbon dioxide emissions by some governments ? recycling resources rather than dumping waste in landfill.
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What is the difference between a producer and primary consumer?
A producer is a green plant or algae that gains energy through photosynthesis. A primary consumer is a herbivore or omnivore that eats the producer.
Students should be able to describe the differences between the trophic levels of organisms within an ecosystem
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What is a producer?
Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called producers.
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What is a primary consumer?
Herbivores eat plants/algae and are called primary consumers.
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants/algae and are called primary consumers
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What are predators that eat herbivores called?
Predators that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers
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What is an apex predator?
Apex predators are carnivores or omnivores with no predators.
Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers. Apex predators are carnivores with no predators.
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What is the role of a decomposer and how do they do it?
Decomposers break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes into the environment.
Decomposers break down dead plant and animal matter by secreting enzymes into the environment.
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How do the food molecules broken down by decomposers get into the microorganism?
The food molecules get into the microorganism through diffusion.
Small soluble food molecules then diffuse into the microorganism.
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What do pyramids of biomass represent and where can trophic level 1 be found?
Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent the relative amount of biomass in each level of a food chain. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of the pyramid.
Pyramids of biomass can be constructed to represent the relative amount of biomass in each level of a food chain. Trophic level 1 is at the bottom of the pyramid
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What is the shape of a pyramid of biomass?
A pyramid of biomass is large at the bottom and narrower at the top.
Students should be able to describe pyramids of biomass
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How is biomass lost between different trophic levels?
Biomass is lost at each trophic level through not being digested, being excreted or being used as energy by the organism.
Students should be able to explain how biomass is lost between the different trophic levels
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Name examples of producers.
Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident energy from light for photosynthesis.
Producers are mostly plants and algae which transfer about 1 % of the incident energy from light for photosynthesis.
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What % of biomass is transferred up each trophic level?
Only approximately 10 % of the biomass is transferred up each trophic level.
Only approximately 10 % of the biomass is transferred up each trophic level.
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What are losses of biomass due to?
Losses of biomass are due to: - not all the ingested material is absorbed, some is egested as faeces - some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and water in respiration and water and urea in urine.
Losses of biomass are due to: ? not all the ingested material is absorbed, some is egested as faeces ? some absorbed material is lost as waste, such as carbon dioxide and water in respiration and water and urea in urine.
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What is used in respiration?
Large amounts of glucose are used in respiration
Large amounts of glucose are used in respiration.
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If the producer trophic level has 4200J of energy and the primary consumer has 800J what is the efficiency of transfer between these trophic levels?
800J/4200J = 0.19 Which is 19%
(MS) Calculate the efficiency of biomass transfer between trophic levels.
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How can the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels be calculated?
To calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels, percentages or fractions of mass must be used.
Students should be able to calculate the efficiency of biomass transfers between trophic levels by percentages or fractions of mass.
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How does lost biomass affect the amount of organisms at each trophic level?
The loss of biomass means that the number of organisms decrease at each trophic level as the amount of energy passed on between the trophic levels decreases.
Students should be able to explain how this affects the number of organisms at each trophic level
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What are the biological factors that affect food security?
The production of plants and animals for food ultimately depends on the factors that control plant growth - light availability, available nutrients and water in the soil, and competition with other plants.
Students should be able to describe some of the biological factors affecting levels of food security
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What does food security mean?
Food security is having enough food to feed a population.
Food security is having enough food to feed a population.
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What are some of the Biological factors which are threatening food security?
The following factors are threatening food security: -Increased birth rate. -changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources are transported around the world -new pests and pathogens that affect farming. -environmental changes that affect food production, such as widespread famine occurring in some countries if rains fail -the cost of agricultural inputs -conflicts that have arisen in some parts of the world which affect the availability of water or food.
Biological factors which are threatening food security include: ? the increasing birth rate has threatened food security in some countries ? changing diets in developed countries means scarce food resources are transported around the world ? new pests and pathogens that affect farming ? environmental changes that affect food production, such as widespread famine occurring in some countries if rains fail ? the cost of agricultural inputs ? conflicts that have arisen in some parts of the world which affect the availability of water or food.
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What type of method should be used to feed all people on Earth?
Sustainable methods must be found to feed all people on Earth
Sustainable methods must be found to feed all people on Earth
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How could the efficiency of food production be improved?
The efficiency of food production can be improved by restricting energy transfer from food animals to the environment.
The efficiency of food production can be improved by restricting energy transfer from food animals to the environment.
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Why are some animals fed high protein foods?
Some animals are fed high protein foods to increase growth.
Some animals are fed high protein foods to increase growth.
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Why do some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods?
Some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods because it reduces variation in plant species that could lead to a crop being wiped out by disease.
(WS) Understand that some people have ethical objections to some modern intensive farming methods.
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Give an advantages and disadvantages of modern farming techniques.
An advantage of modern farming techniques is increased yield. A disadvantage is a lack of diversity in a crop.
(WS) Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of modern farming techniques.
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Why is it important to maintain fish stock levels in the sea?
Fish stock levels are declining. It is important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether in some areas
Fish stocks in the oceans are declining. It is important to maintain fish stocks at a level where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether in some areas
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What plays an important part in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level?
Control of net size and the introduction of fishing quotas play important roles in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level
Control of net size and the introduction of fishing quotas play important roles in conservation of fish stocks at a sustainable level
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What is the most sustainable way of fishing?
Use pole and line fishing techniques instead of nets.
(WS) Understand how application of different fishing techniques promotes recovery of fish stocks
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How can genetic modification be used to increase crop yield to meet the demands of a growing population.
Crops can be gentetically modified to be resistant to pests that could harm to crop.
Students should be able to describe and explain some possible biotechnical and agricultural solutions, including genetic modification, to the demands of the growing human population
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What can modern biotechnology techniques be used for?
Modern biotechnology techniques enable large quantities of microorganisms to be cultured for food.
Modern biotechnology techniques enable large quantities of microorganisms to be cultured for food.
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Why is the fungus Fusarium useful?
The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein, a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians.
The fungus Fusarium is useful for producing mycoprotein, a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians.
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How can a fungus be grown?
The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified
The fungus is grown on glucose syrup, in aerobic conditions, and the biomass is harvested and purified
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Give an example where a genetically modified bacterium can be used.
A genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin. When harvested and purified this is used to treat people with diabetes.
A genetically modified bacterium produces human insulin. When harvested and purified this is used to treat people with diabetes.
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What type of crop could provide more food or food with an improved nutritional value?
Golden Rice provides improved nutritional value?
GM crops could provide more food or food with an improved nutritional value such as golden rice
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How can the rate of a chemical reaction be calculated?
The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over time: mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used / time taken OR mean rate of reaction = quantity of product formed / time taken
The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over time: mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used / time taken OR mean rate of reaction = quantity of product formed / time taken
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How is the quantity of a reactant or product measured?
The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in grams or by a volume in cm3.
The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in grams or by a volume in cm3.
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What are the units for rate of reaction?
The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s.
The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s.
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(HT only) What is the third unit that is used to measure the rate of reaction in terms of moles?
(HT only) The quantity of reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s.
Students are also required to use quantity of reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s. (HT only)
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What would the total amount of a product formed if the rate of reaction is 4g/s and the reaction continues for 3 minutes?
The total amount of product formed if the rate of reaction is 4g/s and the reaction continues for 3 minutes would be 540g. This is worked out by: 3 x 60 = 180s 4g x 180s = 540g
Students should be able to calculate the mean rate of a reaction from given information about the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of a product formed and the time taken
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What key features must be included for graphs showing the quantity of product formed or quantity of reactant used up against time?
The key features of a graph to show the quantity of product formed or reactant used up would be an appropriate scale, labels with units and a line of best fit excluding anomalies.
Students should be able to draw, and interpret, graphs showing the quantity of product formed or quantity of reactant used up against time
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How do you draw a tangent on a curve to measure the rate of a reaction on a graph?
To draw a tangent on a curve to measure the rate of reaction you should find a straight part of the curve of best fit. The slope of the tangent can be used to measure the rate reaction. The steeper the tangent the faster the rate of the reaction.
Students should be able to draw tangents to the curves on these graphs and use the slope of the tangent as a measure of the rate of reaction
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(HT only) How do you calculate the gradient of a tangent of a curve from a graph?
(HT only) To calculate the gradient of a tangent: 1. choose any two points on the line. 2. draw a right-angled triangle with the line as hypotenuse. 3. use the scale on each axis to find the triangle's: vertical length. horizontal length. 4. work out the vertical length ÷ horizontal length. 5. the result is the gradient of the line
Students should be able to (HT only) calculate the gradient of a tangent to the curve on these graphs as a measure of rate of reaction at a specific time.
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What are the main principals of the collision theory?
Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
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What factors can affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the presence of catalysts.
Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the presence of catalysts.
0
What does the term activation energy mean?
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
0
How does increasing the temperature increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions more energetic, and so increases the rate of reaction.
The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
0
How does increasing the pressure of reacting gases affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the pressure of reactant gases increases the rate of chemical reactions.
Students should be able to recall how changing the pressure of reacting gases affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does decreasing the temperature of a chemical reaction affect the rate?
Decreasing the temperature of a chemical reaction decreases the rate of the reaction.
Students should be able to recall how changing the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does increasing the surface area to volume ration of a solid reactant affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the surface area to volume ratio will increase the rate of the chemical reaction because the there will be more contact between the reactant particles. Increasing the frequency of successful collisions.
Students should be able to predict and explain the effects of changes in the size of pieces of a reacting solid in terms of surface area to volume ratio
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How does increasing the concentration of reactants in reacting gases, and the surface solution, the pressure of area of solid reactants increase the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, and the surface area of solid reactants increases the frequency of collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
Increasing the concentration increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
0
How does increasing the concentration of reactants in solution affect the rate of chemical reactions?
Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution increases the rate of chemical reactions.
Students should be able to recall how changing the concentrations of reactants in solution affects the rate of chemical reactions.
0
How does changing the concentration of a reactant from 1M to 2M affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
When the reactant concentration is 2M there are twice as many particles to react. This means the time it would take for the same number of successful collisions will half.
Students should be able to use simple ideas about proportionality when using collision theory to explain the effect of a factor on the rate of a reaction.
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How does increasing the concentration of a solution reactant or the pressure of a gas reactant affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the concentration of a solution reactant or the pressure of a gas reactant will increase the rate of a chemical reaction because there would a higher number of particles in the same area, therefore successful collisions between reactants particles will be more frequent, increasing the rate of reaction.
Students should be able to predict and explain using collision theory the effects of changing conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature on the rate of a reaction
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How does increasing the surface area of solid reactants affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
Increasing the surface area of solid reactants will increase the rate of a chemical reaction.
Students should be able to recall how changing the surface area of solid reactants affects the rate of chemical reactions.
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What are the key characteristics of a catalyst?
Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
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What is an example of a biological catalyst?
Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
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How do catalysts increase the rate of chemical reactions?
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy.
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy. * An opportunity to investigate the catalytic effect of adding different metal salts to a reaction such as the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
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What would the reaction profile for a reaction in the presence of a catalyst look like compared to the same reaction without a catalyst?
The reaction profile for a catalyst would be lower than the pathway for the uncatalysed reaction. The catalyst reaction would be labelled Ea.
A reaction profile for a catalysed reaction can be drawn in the following form: (energy level diagram with reduced Ea with catalyst)
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Are catalysts included in the equation for a chemical reaction? Give a reason for your answer.
Catalysts are not included in the chemical equation for a reaction. This is because they are not used up in the chemical reaction.
Students should be able to identify catalysts in reactions from their effect on the rate of reaction and because they are not included in the chemical equation for the reaction.
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What is the relationship between catalytic action and activation energy?
The relationship between catalytic action and activation energy is that the more effective the catalyst, the lower the activation energy is.
Students should be able to explain catalytic action in terms of activation energy.
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What is the name of the catalyst used in the extraction of aluminium oxide?
The catalyst used in the extraction of aluminium oxide is cryolite.
Students do not need to know the names of catalysts other than those specified in the subject content.
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How does the presence of a catalyst affect the rate of a chemical reaction?
The presence of a catalyst increases the rate of a chemical reaction.
Students should be able to recall how the presence of a catalyst affects the rate of chemical reactions.
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What equipment would you need to investigate the rate of a chemical reaction?
Equipment you would need to investigate the rate of a chemical reaction: timer / stop watch measuring cylinder reactants balance gas syringe if product is a gas balance conical flask
Required practical 5 - rates of reaction (developing a hypothesis) (AT skills 1,3,5,6)
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What is a reversible reaction?
A reversible reaction is one where the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants.
In some chemical reactions, the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants.
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How can reversible reactions be represented?
Reversible reactions can be represented by: A B (reversible arrow) C D
Such reactions are called reversible reactions and are represented: A B (reversible arrow) C D
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If the reversible reaction below was heated which direction would it react? Ammonium chloride (reversible arrow) ammonia hydrogen chloride
If the reversible reaction of ammonium chloride was heated it would decompose to produce ammonia and hydrogen chloride.
For example: ammonium chloride (heat - reversible arrow - cool) ammonia hydrogen chloride.
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If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, what is it in the opposite direction?
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction.
If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction.
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If 3500 KJ of energy is transferred in the forward reaction, how much energy would be transferred in the reverse reaction?
In a reversible reaction the same amount of energy is transferred in each case so 3500 KJ would be transferred in the reverse reaction.
In a reversible reaction the same amount of energy is transferred in each case. For example: hydrated copper sulfate [blue] (endothermic - reversible arrow - exothermic) anhydrous copper sulfate [white] water.
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How can the direction of reversible reactions be changed?
The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions such as temperature and pressure of gases.
The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions.
0
What would happen if the temperature was increased for the reaction below: N2(g) 3H2(g) (reversible reaction) 2NH3(g) The forward reaction is exothermic.
If the temperature is increased, then the equilibrium will shift to the left (the endothermic direction), to remove the extra heat added. This is why only a moderately high temperature (380 - 450°C) is used in the Haber process.
If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is increased: - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an endothermic reaction - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an exothermic reaction.
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What would happen if the temperature was decreased for the reaction below: N2(g) 3H2(g) (reversible reaction) 2NH3(g) The forward reaction is exothermic.
If the temperature is decreased, then the equilibrium will shift to the right (the exothermic direction), to produce additional heat.
If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is decreased: - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an endothermic reaction - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an exothermic reaction.
0
Does increasing the temperature of a reaction favor the endothermic or exothermic reaction?
Increasing the temperature always favours the endothermic reaction. Decreasing the temperature always favours the exothermic reaction
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in temperature on given reactions at equilibrium.
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What does the term equilibrium mean?
When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.
When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.
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How does increasing and decreasing the pressure for gaseous reactions at equilibrium?
For gaseous reactions at equilibrium: - an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction - a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction.
For gaseous reactions at equilibrium: ? an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction ? a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction.
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When does changing the pressure of gaseous reactions not affect the equilibrium?
Changes in pressure will not affect the position of equilibrium, if the number of moles of gases on both sides of the equation are equal. Remember, liquids and solids contribute nothing to the volume of the equilibrium mixture.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of pressure changes on given reactions at equilibrium.
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What does the relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on?
The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the reaction.
The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the reaction.
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What happens when a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to the conditions?
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
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What is Le Chatelier's principle used for?
The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can be predicted using Le Chatelier's Principle.
The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can be predicted using Le Chatelier's Principle.
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How would changing the conditions of the equation below effect the equilibrium? A(g) 2B (g) (reversible arrow) C(g) D(g) a) increasing concentration of A b) increasing the pressure of the reactants c) increasing the temperature of the reaction (the forward reaction is exothermic)
Changing the conditions of the equation below would have the following effects on the equilibrium: A(g) 2B (g) (reversible arrow) C(g) D(g) a) equilibrium would shift to the right to reduce the amount of A particles b) equilibrium would shift to the right as there are fewer gas molecules in the products than in the reactants c) equilibrium would shift to the left as the reaction tries to cool itself down again
Students should be able to make qualitative predictions about the effect of changes on systems at equilibrium when given appropriate information.
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What happens when the concentration of one of the reactions or products in an equilibrium system is changed?
If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed, the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed, the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
0
What happens when the concentration of a reactant is increased in an equilibrium system?
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be formed until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be formed until equilibrium is reached again.
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What happens when the concentration of a reactant is decreased in an equilibrium system?
If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will react until equilibrium is reached again.
If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will react until equilibrium is reached again.
0
What would happen if the concentration of potassium chloride is increase? Cl2(g) H2O(l) (reversible arrow) Cl-(aq) ClO-(aq) 2H (aq)
If potassium chloride (a source of chloride ions) is added to the equilibrium mixture, the equilibrium will shift to the left, to remove the chloride ions added.
Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in concentration of a reactant or product on given reactions at equilibrium.
0
The Haber process is used to manufacture what substance?
The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers.
The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers.
0
Write a word equation for the Haber process?
Nitrogen Hydrogen <=> Ammonia
Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen reacts to form ammonia.
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Why does some of the ammonia produced through the Haber process break back down into nitrogen and hydrogen?
Because the reaction is a reversible reaction.
The reaction is reversible so some of the ammonia produced breaks down into nitrogen and hydrogen: nitrogen hydrogen --> <-- ammonia
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Explain how the commercially used conditions for the Haber process are related to the availability and cost of raw materials?
The raw materials for this process are hydrogen and nitrogen. Hydrogen is obtained by reacting natural gas - methane - with steam, or through the cracking of oil. This pathway is used as hydrocarbon compounds contain large percentages of hydrogen and are readily available. Nitrogen is obtained by burning hydrogen in air. Air is used due to being rich in Nitrogen gas (79% nitrogen); nearly all the rest is oxygen. When hydrogen is burned in air, the oxygen combines with the hydrogen, leaving nitrogen behind.
? explain how the commercially used conditions for the Haber process are related to the availability and cost of raw materials and energy supplies, control of equilibrium position and rate
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How is any ammonia created through the Haber process separated from any unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen?
The remaining products are cooled. Ammonia has a much higher boiling point than either hydrogen or nitrogen, so liquefies and is removed. The remaining hydrogen and nitrogen gases are recycled.
On cooling, the ammonia liquefies and is removed. The remaining hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled.
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Justify why the Haber process is carried out at 200 atmospheres?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium As there are fewer molecules of product than reactant, high pressure pushes equilibrium to favour the products and produce a higher yield of ammonia. The reason pressures higher than 200 atmospheres are not used - Substances under extremely high pressure can be dangerous. - Extremely expensive equipment must be used to keep reactants under sustained high pressures. - High amounts of energy are required to pressurise the gas.
MS 1a Recognise and use expressions in decimal form. MS 1c Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
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Justify the use of a high temperature in the Haber process?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium The forward reaction is exothermic, so in fact a higher temperature reduces the yield of ammonia. The reason that higher temperatures are used are to increase the rate of reaction, to make the process economically viable.
? apply the principles of dynamic equilibrium in Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium to the Haber process
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Suggest why a catalyst is used in the Haber process?
The Haber process is a reversible reaction meaning it will reach a dynamic equilibrium. The use of a catalyst does not affect the position of equilibrium, but will speed up the rate at which it reaches equilibrium.
? explain the trade-off between rate of production and position of equilibrium
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What are the raw materials required for the Haber process?
The raw materials for the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen
The raw materials for the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen
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What is commonly used as the source of nitrogen in the Haber process? What is commonly used as the source of hydrogen in the Haber process?
Nitrogen gas used in the reaction is taken from the air by reacting the oxygen in the air with hydrogen, leaving nearly pure hydrogen gas. Hydrogen for the reaction is created by reacting natural gas (mostly methane) and steam.
Students should be able to recall a source for the nitrogen and a source for the hydrogen used in the Haber process
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What conditions are used in the Haber process?
- Iron catalyst - High temperature (450C) - High pressure (200 atmospheres)
The purified gases are passed over a catalyst of iron at a high temperature (about 450?C) and a high pressure (about 200 atmospheres).
0
Where does crude oil come from?
Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.
Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.
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Is crude oil a mixture of elements, compounds or both?
Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds called hydrocarbons.
Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds.
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What is the definition of a hydrocarbon?
Hydrocarbons are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
Most of the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons, which are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
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Does crude oil contain mostly alkanes or alkenes?
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called alkanes
Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called alkanes. The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2
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What are the names of the first four members of alkanes?
The first four members of the alkanes are: methane, ethane, propane and butane.
The first four members of the alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane.
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What is the general formula for alkane molecules?
The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n 2.
Alkane molecules can be represented in the following forms: C2H6 or displayed formula.
0
Which of the following are examples of alkanes: C4H10, C2H4, C5H12?
C4H10 and C5H12 are both examples of alkanes.
Students should be able to recognise substances as alkanes given their formulae in these forms.
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Name the alkane with: a) 1 carbon b) 2 carbons c) 3 carbons d) 4 carbons
a) Methane b) Ethane c) Propane d) Butane
Students do not need to know the names of specific alkanes other than methane, ethane, propane and butane.
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How can crude oil be separated into fractions?
The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
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Why is it useful to separate crude oil into fractions?
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
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What type of fuels are produced from crude oil?
Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle, such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle, such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
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What are three examples of useful materials produced by the petrochemical industry?
Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents.
Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents.
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Why is it possible to produce such a vast array of products from crude oil?
The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar compounds.
The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar compounds.
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How does fractional distillation separate crude oil into fractions?
Fractional distillation seperates crude oil first by vaporisating all compounds, a column of varying temperatures allows molecules with similar condensation points to be seperated. This is due to their carbon chain length
Students should be able to explain how fractional distillation works in terms of evaporation and condensation.
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What factor of effects a hydrocarbons boiling point, viscosity and flammability?
The factor that effects a hydrocarbons boiling point, viscosity and flammability is the size of their molecule
Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of their molecules, including boiling point, viscosity and flammability. These properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels. (WS) Investigate the properties of different hydrocarbons.
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How does boiling point, viscosity and flammability change with increasing molecular size?
As molecular size of hydrocarbons increases the boiling point increases, the viscosity increases and flammability decreases.
Students should be able to recall how boiling point, viscosity and flammability change with increasing molecular size.
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What are the products of the complete combustion?
The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water.
The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water.
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What is the balanced symbol equation for the complete combustion of methane (CH4)? (include state symbols in your answer)
CH4(g) + O2(g) -> CO2(g) + H2O(g)
Students should be able to write balanced equations for the complete combustion of hydrocarbons with a given formula.
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What happens to the carbon and hydrogen atoms during combustion reactions?
During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised.
During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised.
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What is the useful outcome of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels?
The useful outcome of the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels is that it releases energy.
The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels releases energy.
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Describe how the each of the following properties changes as the length of hydrocarbon chains within a fraction increases: a) Boiling point b) Flammability c) Viscosity
a) Boiling point increases as chain length increases. b) Flammability decreases as chain length increases. c) Viscosity increases as chain length increases.
Knowledge of trends in properties of hydrocarbons is limited to: ? boiling points, ? viscosity, ? flammability.
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What is cracking?
Cracking is when hydrocarbons are broken down into smaller more useful molecules
Hydrocarbons can be broken down (cracked) to produce smaller, more useful molecules.
0
Describe the conditions required for catalytic cracking?
Hydrocarbons are heated to vaporise them and passed through a hot catalyst breaking down the molecules into smaller ones by thermal decomposition
Cracking can be done by various methods including catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
0
How is cracking done using steam?
Hydrocarbons are heated to vaporise them and mixed with steam and heated to very high temperatures breaking down the molecules into smaller ones by thermal decomposition
Students should be able to describe in general terms the conditions used for catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
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What are the products of cracking?
The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of hydrocarbon called alkenes.
The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of hydrocarbon called alkenes.
0
What is the balanced equation for the cracking of this alkane? C15H32 --> 2C2H4 C3H6 _______
The balanced equation for the cracking is: C15H32 --> 2C2H4 + C3H6 + C8H18
Students should be able to balance chemical equations as examples of cracking given the formulae of the reactants and products.
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Why do do alkenes react with bromine water, but alkanes don't?
Alkenes react with bromine water because they have a C=C making them more reactive than alkanes (which don?t react with bromine water)
Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and react with bromine water, which is used as a test for alkenes.
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What is the chemical test and positive result for identifying alkenes?
The chemical test for identifying alkenes is to add bromine water, the positive result is that the bormine was decolourises.
Students should be able to recall the colour change when bromine water reacts with an alkene.
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Why is cracking of hydrocarbons so important?
Cracking is important because there is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
There is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
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How are alkenes used in chemical industry?
Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many other chemicals.
Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many other chemicals.
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How does modern life depend on the uses of hydrocarbons?
Hydrocarbons are used to produce fuels for transport, generating electricity. They are the raw materials for producing plastics and other chemicals.
Students should be able to give examples to illustrate the usefulness of cracking. They should also be able to explain how modern life depends on the uses of hydrocarbons. (For Combined Science: Trilogy and Synergy students do not need to know the formulae or names of individual alkenes.)
0
What is the structure of an alkene like?
Alkenes are hydrocarbons (molecules made up of only hydrogen and carbon) with a double carbon-carbon bond.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double carbon-carbon bond.
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What is the general formula for the homologous series of alkenes?
The general formula for the homologous series of alkenes is CnH2n.
The general formula for the homologous series of alkenes is CnH2n. Recognise substances that are alkenes from their names or from given formulae in these forms.
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Why are alkene molecules called unsaturated molecules?
Alkene molecules are unsaturated because they contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
Alkene molecules are unsaturated because they contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
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What are the conditions for the addition of water to alkenes?
The conditions for the additional of water to alkenes is to use steam passed over a catalyst of hot phosphoric acid. The resulting product is an alcohol.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of water alkenes
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What are the conditions for the addition of halogens to alkenes?
If the alkene is a gas the halogen must also be a gas. If the alkene is a liquid then the halogen can be bubbled through as a gas.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of halogens to alkenes
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What are the names of the first four members of the homologous series of alkenes?
The first four members of the homologous series of alkenes are ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
The first four members of the homologous series of alkenes are ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
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What is the structural and display formula ethene?
The structural formula for ethene is C2H4, display formula shows C=C with 2 hydrogens bonded to each C by a single bond.
Alkene molecules can be represented in the following forms: C3H6 or displayed formula
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What is the structural and display formula pentene?
The structural formula for ethene is C5H10, display formula shows one C=C anywhere with all other carbons single bonded C-C. There are 10 carbons single bonded, each carbon has four bonds in total.
Students do not need to know the names of individual alkenes other than ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
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What is the functional group for alkenes?
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the functional group C=C.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the functional group C=C.
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What determines the reactions of organic compounds?
It is the generality of reactions of functional groups that determine the reactions of organic compounds.
It is the generality of reactions of functional groups that determine the reactions of organic compounds.
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How does the combustion of alkenes differ in oxygen and in air?
Alkenes react with oxygen in combustion reactions in the same way as other hydrocarbons, but they tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete combustion.
Alkenes react with oxygen in combustion reactions in the same way as other hydrocarbons, but they tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete combustion.
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How do alkenes react with hydrogen, water and the halogens?
Alkenes react with hydrogen (in the presence of a nickel catalyst), water (phosphoric acid catalyst) and the halogens, by the addition of atoms across the carbon-carbon double bond so that the double bond becomes a single carbon-carbon bond.
Alkenes react with hydrogen, water and the halogens, by the addition of atoms across the carbon-carbon double bond so that the double bond becomes a single carbon-carbon bond.
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What are the conditions required for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes?
The conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes is 300oC and over a heated catalyst of finely divided nickel
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
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What are the conditions required for the addition of water to alkenes?
The conditions for the addition of water to alkenes is high temperature (for steam) and a phosphoric acid catalyst.
Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
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What are the structures of the following products of alkene addition reactions: 1. dibromoethane 2. dichloroethane 3. ethanol 4. ethane
The structures of the following products of alkene addition reactions are: 1. dibromoethane = CH2BrCH2Br 2. dichloroethane = CH2ClCH2Cl 3. ethanol = C2H5OH 4. ethane = C2H6
Students should be able to draw fully displayed structural formulae of the first four members of the alkenes and the products of their addition reactions with hydrogen, water, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
0
What is the functional group for alochols?
Alcohols contain the functional group -OH.
Alcohols contain the functional group ?OH.
0
What are the names of the first four members of the homologous series of alcohols?
Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol are the first four members of a homologous series of alcohols.
Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol are the first four members of a homologous series of alcohols. Opportunities when investigating reactions of alcohols.
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What are the names and structural formula for the first four members of the homologous series of alcohols?
The structural formula for the first four members of the homologous series of alochols are: methanol = CH3OH ethanol = CH3CH2OH propanol = CH3CH2CH2OH butanol = CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
Alcohols can be represented in the following forms: CH3CH2OH or displayed formula
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What happens when when alochols react with sodium?
When alcohols react with sodium they produce hydrogen gas
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with sodium
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Name the following alcohols from their formula: a) C2H5OH b) C3H7OH c) C6H11OH
a) Ethanol b) Propanol c) Hexanol
Students should be able to recognise alcohols from their names from given formulae.
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What happens when when alochol burns in air?
When alcohols are burnt in air they combust to form water and carbon dioxide, releasing energy
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with burn in air
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What pH solutions are formed when alcohols are added to water?
When alcohols are added to water they form a neutral solution (OH- and XH )
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols are added to water
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What are the main uses of alcohols?
The main uses of alochols are fuels, producing alocholic drinks, cleaning products, making esters
Students should be able to recall the main uses of these alcohols.
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How can ethanol be produced from sugar?
Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions are fermented using yeast.
Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions are fermented using yeast.
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What are the conditions used during the fermentation of sugar to produce ethanol?
Fermintation of ethanol from sugar requires water, enzymes from yeast, temperature between 25-40 degress celcius and an absence of oxygen
Students should know the conditions used for fermentation of sugar using yeast.
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What happens when alcohols react with oxidising agents?
When alochols react with oxidising agents they form carboxylic acids
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with an oxidising agent
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What is the functional group for carboxylic acids?
Carboxylic acids have the functional group COOH.
Carboxylic acids have the functional group ?COOH.
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What are the names of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids?
The first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid
The first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid. (WS) Opportunies within investigation of the reactions of carboxylic acids.
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What is the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids?
the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are: 1. methanoic acid = HCOOH 2. ethanoic acid = CH2COOH 3. propanoic acid = C2H5COOH 4. butanoic acid = C3H7COOH
The structures of carboxylic acids can be represented in the following forms: CH3COOH or displayed formula
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What are the names of the following carboxylic acids? 1. HCOOH 2. CH2COOH 3. C2H5COOH 4. C3H7COOH
the structure of the first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are: 1. methanoic acid = HCOOH 2. ethanoic acid = CH2COOH 3. propanoic acid = C2H5COOH 4. butanoic acid = C3H7COOH
Students should be able to recognise carboxylic acids from their names or from given formulae.
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(HT only) Why are carboxylic acids weak acids in terms of ionisation and pH?
Carboxylic acids are weak acids as they exist in an equlibrium so don't ever fully ionise (dissossiate)
(HT only) explain why carboxylic acids are weak acids in terms of ionisation and pH (see Strong and weak acids
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What happens when carboxylic acids react with carbonates?
When carboxylic acids react with carbonates they product carbon dioxide gas
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with carbonates
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What happens when carboxylic acids dissolve in water?
When carboxylic acids dissolve in water they produce acidic solutions
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids dissolve in water
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What happens when carboxylic acids react with alcohols?
When carboxylic acids react with alochols they produce an ester and water. An acid catalyst is needed.
Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with alcohols.
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What is a pure substance?
A pure substance is a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance.
In chemistry, a pure substance is a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance.
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What is a formulation?
A formulation is a mixture that has been designed to have distinct properties and be used as a useful product.
A formulation is a mixture that has been designed as a useful product.
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What can be used to distinguish between pure substances and mixtures?
Use Melting point and boiling point data to distinguish between pure substances and mixtures?
Pure elements and compounds melt and boil at specific temperatures. Melting point and boiling point data can be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures.
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What are examples of formulations?
Formulations: fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods.
Formulations include fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods.
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What is a pure substance in everyday language?
A pure substance can mean a substance that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its natural state, eg pure milk.
In everyday language, a pure substance can mean a substance that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its natural state, eg pure milk.
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How are formulations made?
They are made by mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure that the product has the required properties.
Formulations are made by mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure that the product has the required properties.
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How would you test if carbon dioxide was present In a reaction?
Use an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).
The test for carbon dioxide uses an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).
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How would you test if Hydrogen was present In a reaction?
Use a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
The test for hydrogen uses a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
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How would you test if chlorine was present In a reaction?
When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.
The test for chlorine uses litmus paper. When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.
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How would you test if Oxygen was present In a reaction?
Use a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen
The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen
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What can Chromatography be used to separate?
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures such as inks and can give information to help identify the substances from which it is made.
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures and can give information to help identify substances.
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What are the names of the two phases involved in chromatography?
Stationary phase and mobile phase.
Chromatography involves a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
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What does seperation depend on?
Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases.
Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases
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How should the Rf value be expressed?
The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from origin) to the distance moved by the solvent
The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from origin) to the distance moved by the solvent can be expressed as its R value
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How is the Rf value calculated?
Rf = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
RT = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
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How do the Rf values of compounds change in different solvents?
Different compounds have different R values in different solvents.
Different compounds have different R values in different solvents,
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How can compounds be identified?
Rf values can be used to help identify the compounds.
Rf values can be used to help identify the compounds.
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How many spots are produced by a pure compound compared to a compound in a mixture?
The compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents.
The compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents.
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How can paper chromatography be used to separate mixtures?
A spot of each mixture is dropped onto the start line of the paper chromotography. The paper chromatogram is introduced to a solvent and left for seperation to take place.
Students should be able to explain how paper chromatography separates mixtures
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How can chromatographic methods can be used for distinguishing pure substances from impure substances?
The compounds in a mixture may separate into multiple spots depending on the solvent, but a pure substance will always produce a single spot in all solvents.
Students should be able to suggest how chromatographic methods can be used for distinguishing pure substances from impure substances
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How can chromatograms be used to determine R values?
The R value can be calculated and compared. RT = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
Students should be able to interpret chromatograms and determine R values from chromatograms
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How can elements and compounds be detected?
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid.
Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid.
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What are the advantages of instrumental methods compared with the chemical tests?
Students should be able to state advantages of instrumental methods compared with the chemical tests in this specification.
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What are the different colours produced by some metal ions (cations)?
lithium compounds result in a crimson flame ? sodium compounds result in a yellow flame ? potassium compounds result in a lilac flame ? calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame ? copper compounds result in a green flame.
Flame tests can be used to identify some metal ions (cations). Lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium and copper compounds produce distinctive colours in flame tests: ? lithium compounds result in a crimson flame ? sodium compounds result in a yellow flame ? potassium compounds result in a lilac flame ? calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame ? copper compounds result in a green flame.
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When are some flame colours masked?
If a sample containing a mixture of ions
If a sample containing a mixture of ions is used some flame colours can be masked
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How do carbonates react with dilute acids?
Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater.
Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater.
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What do Halide ions produce when they react with silver nitrate solution?
Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
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What do Sulfate ions in solution produce when they react with barium chloride in the presence of hydrochloric acid?
Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
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What solution can be used to identify some some metal ions (cations)?
Sodium hydroxide solution can be used to identify some metal ions (cations).
Sodium hydroxide solution can be used to identify some metal ions (cations).
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What do solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form?
They form white precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added but only the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
Solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added but only the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
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What happens when sodium hydroxide is added to Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions?
Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added. Copper(II) forms a blue precipitate, iron(II) a green precipitate and iron(III) a brown precipitate.
Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added. Copper(II) forms a blue precipitate, iron(II) a green precipitate and iron(III) a brown precipitate.
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Write a balanced equation for reactions that produce the insoluble hydroxides.
CuSo4 2NaOH Cu(OH)2 Na2SO4
Students should be able to write balanced equations for the reactions to produce the insoluble hydroxides.
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What is Flame emission spectroscopy used for?
Flame emission spectroscopy is an example of an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions in solutions.
Flame emission spectroscopy is an example of an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions in solutions.
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What can the output of a line spectrum be used for?
The sample is put into a flame and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope. The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution and measure their concentrations.
The sample is put into a flame and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope. The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution and measure their concentrations.
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What is the composition of the earths atmosphere?
about four-fifths (approximately 80 %) nitrogen ? about one-fifth (approximately 20 %) oxygen ? small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
Students to recall current composition of the earths atmosphere: about four-fifths (approximately 80 %) nitrogen, about one-fifth (approximately 20 %) oxygen and small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
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How has the Earths atmosphere evolved?
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth?s existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth?s atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
Students should be able to, given appropriate information, interpret evidence and evaluate different theories about the Earth's early atmosphere.
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How has the Earths atmosphere evolved?
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth?s existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth?s atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth's existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth's atmosphere may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today, consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
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What types of gases did volcanoes produce?
Volcanoes produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane and ammonia.
Volcanoes also produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane and ammonia.
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What happened to the atmopshere when the oceans formed?
When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. No knowledge of other theories is required.
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What process has caused oxygen levels in our atmosphere to increase since its formation?
Photosynthesis, carried out by organisms such as algae and plants converted carbon dioxide into the oxygen now found in the atmosphere.
Algae and plants produced the oxygen that is now in the atmosphere by photosynthesis, which can be represented by the equation.
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When did Algae first produce oxygen?
Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon after this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion years plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually increased to a level that enabled animals to evolve.
Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon after this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion years plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually increased to a level that enabled animals to evolve.
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How did Algae and plants affect the atmosphere?
Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
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Apart from through the process of photosynthesis, what else has caused carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere to decrease since its formation?
Carbon dioxide levels also decreased due to some dissolving into the oceans, the formation of sedimentary rocks and the formation of fossil fuels.
Carbon dioxide was also decreased by the formation of sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels that contain carbon.
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How did the Earth's atmosphere change over time? Why did these changes happen?
Volcanic activity caused high levels of carbon dioxide, as the volancos died out the Earth's temperature cooled. The water vapour produced by volcanos condensed to form oceans. The carbon dioxide levels decreased as it dissolved into the oceans and formed part of the shells of marine animals.
Students should be able to describe the main changes in the atmosphere over time and some of the likely causes of these changes
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How and why did limestone, coal, crude oil and natural gas form?
Limestone, crude oil and natural gas all contain carbon. Limestone was formed by the calcium carbonate from sea organisms and their shells. Crude oil and natural gas form from the decomposition of living animals and plants.
Students should be able to describe and explain the formation of deposits of limestone, coal, crude oil and natural gas.
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How does the atmosphere help the Earth maintain stable surface temperatures?
Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
Oreenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
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What are the long and short term impacts of the greenhouse effect?
Short term effects: Average surface temperature of earth increases. Long term effect: Rising sea levels, more extreme weather patterns.
Students should be able to describe the greenhouse effect in terms of the interaction of short and long wavelength radiation with matter.
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What types of human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere?
Any human activity that produces carbon dioxide and methane.
Some human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These include: - carbon dioxide - methane. Students should be able to recall two human activities that increase the amounts of each of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane.
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What do most scientists believe will happen to the Earth?s atmosphere?
Many scientists believe that human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth?s atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in global climate change.
Based on peer-reviewed evidence, many scientists believe that human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in global climate change.
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What difficulties can such complex systems as global climate change cause?
They lead to simplified models, speculation and opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of the evidence and which may be biased.
There are difficulties in such complex systems as global climate change. This leads to simplified models, speculation and opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of the evidence and which may be biased.
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What is the importance of peer reviewing results and of communicating results to a wide range of audiences.
Peer reviewing is important within the science community as it prevents bias and allows links to be made within and outside certain specialisms as well as to educate wider audiances.
Students should be able to recognise the importance of peer review of results and of communicating results to a wide range of audiences.
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What is a major cause of climate change?
An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of climate change.
An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of climate change. There are several potential effects of global climate changes.
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Describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
The potential effects of global climate change are rising sea levels, damage to ozone layer, increase earth temperature, polar ice caps melting, animals may become extinct, damage to coral reefs.
Students should be able to describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
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What are the scale, risk and environmental implications of global climate change.
Global scale with different affects in different regions. Risk to lost of home, crops, spread of disease, more extreme weather events such as hurricanes and flooding and species extinction.
Students should be able to discuss the scale, risk and environmental implications of global climate change.
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What is a carbon footprint?
The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service or event.
The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service or event.
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How can a carbon footprint be reduced?
The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane.
The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane.
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What actions are required to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane?
The main way to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide in the air is to burn less fossil fuels. Unfortunately, we depend on the burning of fossil fuels for heating, electricity generation and transport. If we are to burn less fossil fuels, we will need alternatives for these essential activities. Cattle farming produces a vast quantity of methane and therefore an effective way to reduce the emissions of methane would be o move away from a meat based diet towards a more plant based diet. This would also be a more effective use of land as the land used to produce cattle feed could be used to grow crops and vegetables.
Students should be able to describe actions to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane
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What human activity is the biggest contributor to an increase in atmospheric pollutants?
The combustion of fossil fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants.
The combustion of fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants.
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What do most fuels contain?
Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur.
Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur.
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Name the gases commonly released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned?
Carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the atmosphere.
The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned may include carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the atmosphere.
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How does burning fuels produce carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen?
Carbon monoxide is produced through incomplete combustion due to limited oxygen. Soot is produced from carbon that has not reacted during combustion. Sulfur dioxide is produced due to sulfur in the fuel reacting with oxygen in hot enginges. Nirtogen oxides are formed from nitrogen in the air reacting with oxygen.
Students should be able to describe how carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are produced by burning fuels.
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What are the impacts of emissions of carbon monoxide?
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and so is not easily detected.
Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and so is not easily detected.
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What environmental impact does the emission of sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause?
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in humans and cause acid rain.
Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in humans and cause acid rain.
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What environmental impact do particulates cause?
Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.
Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.
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Describe and explain the problems caused by increased amounts of the following pollutants in the atmosphere: a) Carbon Dioxide b) Nitrogen Oxides c) Sulfur Dioxide d) Particulates
a) Greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. b) Dissolves in water droplets in clouds, it makes the rain more acidic than normal. This is called acid rain. c) Same as b) d) Very small pieces of solids, mainly carbon, that are released into the air during incomplete combustion. Contribute towards global dimming (the reduction of sunlight that makes it to the earths surface).
Students should be able to describe and explain the problems caused by increased amounts of these pollutants in the air.
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What do humans use the Earth's resources for?
Humans use the Earth's resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport.
Humans use the Earth's resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport.
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What do natural resources provide?
Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels.
Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels.
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What are finite resources used for?
Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials.
Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials.
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What role has Chemistry played in improving agricultural and industrial processes?
Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes toprovide new products and in sustainable development, which is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes to provide new products and in sustainable development, which is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
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What are the names of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products?
The natural products that are supplemented/replaced by agricultural or synthetic products are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Students should be able to state examples of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products.
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What is the difference between finite and renewable resources?
Finite resources are those which are limited. Renewable resources are those which can be replenished at the same rate that they are used up.
Students should be able to distinguish between finite and renewable resources given appropriate information.
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What are orders of magnitude?
A system of classification determined by size, typically in powers of ten.
Students should be able to use orders of magnitude to evaluate the significance of data.
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What different aspects of a products lifetime are assessed through a life cycle assessment?
Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products in each of these stages: - extracting and processing raw materials - manufacturing and packaging - use and operation during its lifetime - disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and distribution at each stage.
Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products in each of these stages: - extracting and processing raw materials - manufacturing and packaging - use and operation during its lifetime - disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and distribution at each stage.
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Why are life cycle assessment not a purely objective process?
Life cycle assessments are not a purely objective process because allocating numerical values to pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value judgments.
Use of water, resources, energy sources and production of some wastes can be fairly easily quantified. Allocating numerical values to pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value judgements, so LCA is not a purely objective process.
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Why is it important that life cycle assessments are completed by an unbiased impartial agency?
It is important that life cycle assessments are completed using an unbiased impartial agency to avoid misuse of data to reach pre-determined conclusions. e.g. to support a claim that a product is more environmentally friendly.
Selective or abbreviated LCAs can be devised to evaluate a product but these can be misused to reach pre-determined conclusions, eg in support of claims for advertising purposes.
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What are the life cycle assessments that would be conducted for plastic and paper carrier bags?
The life cycle assessments that would be conducted for plastic and paper bags are the raw materials, manufacturing processing, which lasts longer, disposal, transport, emissions and waste.
Students should be able to carry out simple comparative LCAs for shopping bags made from plastic and paper.
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What are the reasons behind the incentive Reduce, Reuse, Recycle?
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle is targeted to end users to reduce the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste and environmental impacts.
The reduction in use, reuse and recycling of materials by end users reduces the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste and environmental impacts.
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Where are the raw materials found to produce products such as ceramics, metals and plastics?
The raw materials we use to make ceramics, metals and plastics are found within the earths crust.
Metals, glass, building materials, clay ceramics and most plastics are produced from limited raw materials.
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Describe how the majority of energy is generated in order to process raw materials such as clay ceramics and metal ores?
Most energy used to process natural resources is generated from finite resources, such as fossil fuels.
Much of the energy for the processes comes from limited resources.
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Evaluate the environmental impacts of quarrying in order to obtain natural resources
The Environmental impacts of quarrying can be: Once usage is complete, often old quarries can become u - Destruction of natural habitats - Pollutants released from use of chemicals and burning fossil fuels in operation of quarry - Permanently disfigure the local environment and are often visible from long distances
Obtaining raw materials from the Earth by quarrying and mining causes environmental impacts.
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Give an example of a product that can be reused and a product that can be recycled.
Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use such as plastics and metals.
Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use.
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How can metals be recycled?
Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products.
Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products.
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What does the amount of separation for a product rely on? Give an example.
The amount of separation required for recycling depends on the material and the properties required of the final product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore.
The amount of separation required for recycling depends on the material and the properties required of the final product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore.
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What ways can reducing the use of limited resources be achieved?
Reducing the use of limited resources be achieved by producing less waste, reusing certain products, recycling certain products.
Students should be able to evaluate ways of reducing the use of limited resources, given appropriate information.
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What should the quality of drinking water be like?
The quality of drinking water should have low levels of dissolved salts and microbes.
Water of appropriate quality is essential for life. For humans, drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microbes.
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What must be done to the waste water produced by urban lifestyles and industrial processes before it can be released back into the environment?
Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of waste water that require treatment before being released into the environment.
Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of waste water that require treatment before being released into the environment.
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What is the name given to water that is safe to drink?
The name given to water that is safe to drink is potable water.
Water that is safe to drink is called potable water. Potable water is not pure water in the chemical sense because it contains dissolved substances.
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What will be required to be removed from a) agricultural waste water and b)industrial waste water?
Agricultural waste water require removal of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
Sewage and agricultural waste water require removal of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
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What factors decide which methods are used to produce potable water?
The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water and local conditions.
The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water and local conditions.
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What does sewage treatment include?
Sewage treatment includes: - screening and grit removal - sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent - anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge - aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
Sewage treatment includes: ? screening and grit removal ? sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent ? anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge ? aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
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What stages do most of the potable water in the UK produced?
The stages that most potable water is produced in the UK is: - choosing an appropriate source of fresh water - passing the water through filter beds - sterilising.
In the United Kingdom (UK), rain provides water with low levels of dissolved substances (fresh water) that collects in the ground and in lakes and rivers, and most potable water is produced by: - choosing an appropriate source of fresh water - passing the water through filter beds - sterilising.
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How is potable water obtained from a) waste ground and b) salt water?
Potable water can be obtained from waste ground through the three main stages of sedimentation, filtration and sterilizing. Potable water can be obtained from salt water through desalination by distillation or reverse osmosis.
Students should be able to comment on the relative ease of obtaining potable water from waste, ground and salt water.
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What are three types of sterilising agents used for potable water?
Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or ultraviolet light.
Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or ultraviolet light.
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What process can be used to make salt water / sea water potable when fresh water is limited?
If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or sea water may be required.
If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or sea water may be required.
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How is desalination completed? (give two methods)
Desalination can be done by distillation or by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
Desalination can be done by distillation or by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
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What is the main drawback of desalination processes?
Desalination processes require large amounts of energy.
These processes require large amounts of energy.
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What is the difference between potable and pure water?
Pure water only contains water particles with no other substances. Potable water is safe to drink but contains other soluble ions.
Students should be able to distinguish between potable water and pure water.
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What is the differences in the way that ground water and salty water is treated?
Salty water is treated by distillation or by reverse osmosis. Ground water is treated by - passing the water through filter beds and then sterilising using chlorine, ozone or UV light.
Students should be able to describe the differences in treatment of ground water and salty water.
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What are the reasons for each step of producing potable water from ground water?
Potable water is filtered to remove any fine particles in the water. It is then steralised to kill microbes.
Students should be able to give reasons for the steps used to produce potable water.
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How can analysis of the purity of water be carried out?
It is possible to analyse the purity of water by the boiling point. The closer the boiling point is to that of pure water, the more pure it is.
Students should be able to carry out analysis and purification of water samples from different sources, including pH, dissolved solids and distillation.
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What will happen to the Earth's supplies of metal ores if we continue to extract them at the rate we are now?
The Earth's resources of metal ores are limited. Eventually they will run out.
The Earth?s resources of metal ores are limited.
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What are new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores called?
Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
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What do these new methods of copper extraction avoid?
These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock.
These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock.
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How is phytomining carried out?
Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds.
Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds.
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How is bioleaching carried out?
Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds.
Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds.
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How can copper compounds be processed to obtain the metal.
The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
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What uses do we have for the ammonia produced through the Haber process?
Ammonia can be used to manufacture ammonium salts (used in fertilisers) and nitric acid.
Ammonia can be used to manufacture ammonium salts and nitric acid.
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Recall the names of the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with: a) nitric acid b) sulfuric acid c) phosphoric acid
a) Calcium nitrate b) Single superphosphate (a mixture of calcium sulfate and calcium phosphate) c) Triple superphosphate (calcium phosphate)
Students should be able to recall the names of the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid
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What process is used to extract rocks containing phosphate compounds from the earth?
Mining. - The phosphate containing rocks must be processed further prior to being used in fertilisers.
Potassium chloride, potassium sulfate and phosphate rock are obtained by mining, but phosphate rock cannot be used directly as a fertiliser
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How can rocks containing phosphate compounds be treated, in order to make soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers?
Phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers.
Phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers.
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NPK fertilisers all contain which 3 elements?
N = Nitrogen P = Phosphorus K = Potassium
Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are used as fertilisers to improve agricultural productivity. NPK fertilisers contain compounds of all three elements.
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Can NPK fertilisers be made using a variety of raw materials and different reactions?
Yes, Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be achieved using a variety of raw materials in several integrated processes
Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be achieved using a variety of raw materials in several integrated processes
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NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts. What is a formulation?
Any mixture or substance prepared according to a particular formula. NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts containing appropriate percentages of the elements (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium).
NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts containing appropriate percentages of the elements.
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How can corrosion be described?
Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment.
Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment.
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How can corrosion be prevented?
Corrosion can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, such as greasing, painting or electroplating.
Corrosion can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, such as greasing, painting or electroplating.
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What practical could be carried out to investigate the conditions needed for corrosion (rusting)?
A practical where a metal object e.g. a nail is kept in different conditions for example: 1. Only in air 2. Only in water 3. In air and water This would show that both air and water are needed for rusting to occur.
Students should be able to describe experiments and interpret results to show that both air and water are necessary for rusting.
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What conditions are needed for corrosion to occur?
Rusting is an example of corrosion. Both air and water are necessary for iron to rust.
Rusting is an example of corrosion. Both air and water are necessary for iron to rust.
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What does sacrificial protection mean?
Some coatings are reactive and contain a more reactive metal to provide sacrificial protection, eg zinc is used to galvanise iron.
Some coatings are reactive and contain a more reactive metal to provide sacrificial protection, eg zinc is used to galvanise iron.
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How is aluminium protected from further corrosion?
Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects the metal from further corrosion.
Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects the metal from further corrosion.
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Would a more or less reactive metal be used in sacrificial protection? Give a reason for your answer.
A more reactive metal is used as this would prevent the less reactive metal from rusting and become weakened.
Students should be able to explain sacrificial protection in terms of relative reactivity.
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Are most everyday metals pure or alloys?
Most metals in everyday use are alloys.
Most metals in everyday use are alloys.
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What are the alloys bronze and brass made up of?
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
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What is the percentage of gold in 24 carat and 18 carat gold used for jewellery?
The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats. 24 carat being 100 % (pure gold), and 18 carat being 75 % gold.
Gold used as jewellery is usually an alloy with silver, copper and zinc. The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats. 24 carat being 100 % (pure gold), and 18 carat being 75 % gold.
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What elements are present in the alloy steel?
Steels are alloys of iron that contain specific amounts of carbon and other metals.
Steels are alloys of iron that contain specific amounts of carbon and other metals.
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How are the physical properties of high carbon and low carbon steels different?
High carbon steel is strong but brittle. Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped.
High carbon steel is strong but brittle. Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped.
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What are the benefits of stainless steels that contain chromium and nickel?
Steels containing chromium and nickel (stainless steels) are hard and resistant to corrosion.
Steels containing chromium and nickel (stainless steels) are hard and resistant to corrosion.
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What are the uses of low density aluminium alloys?
The uses of low density alloys can be for building bike frames and aeroplanes.
Aluminium alloys are low density.
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What are the uses of high density steels?
High density steels are used for building materials. Low density steels are used
Students should be able to recall a use of each of the alloys specified.
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How is soda-glass made?
Soda glass is made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and limestone.
Most of the glass we use is soda-lime glass, made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and limestone.
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How is borosilicate glass made and what is the advantage of it over soda-glass?
Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than soda-lime glass.
Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than soda-lime glass.
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How are clay ceramics made?
Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace.
Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace.
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What is a composite and how are they made?
Most composites are made of two materials, a matrix or binder surrounding and binding together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is called the
Most composites are made of two materials, a matrix or binder surrounding and binding together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is called the reinforcement.
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What are three examples of composites?
Some examples of composites are: 1. carbon fibre 2. plywood 3. reinforced concrete 4. Ceramic
Students should be able to recall some examples of composites.
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What is a polymer?
A polymer is a large chain of monomers covalently bonded.
Students should be able to, given appropriate information explain how the properties of materials are related to their uses and select appropriate materials.
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What factors determine the type of polymers that are made?
The properties of polymers depend on what monomers they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced from ethene.
The properties of polymers depend on what monomers they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced from ethene.
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What is the difference between thermo softening and thermosetting polymers?
Thermosoftening polymers melt when they are heated. Thermosetting polymers do not melt when they are heated.
Thermosoftening polymers melt when they are heated. Thermosetting polymers do not melt when they are heated.
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How are high density and low density poly(ethene) are produced from ethene?
High and Low density poly(ethene) are made using different catalysts and different reaction conditions.
Students should be able to explain how low density and high density poly(ethene) are both produced from ethene.
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How are the structures of thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers different?
Thermosoftening polymers are no cross chains or branches between the polymer chains so slide easily past each other, this makes them change shape when heated. Thermosetting polymers have many cross chains or branches so are able to hold their sh
Students should be able to explain the difference between thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers in terms of their structures.
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What is a force?
A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object.
A force is a push or pull that acts on an object due to the interaction with another object.
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What is the difference between contact and non-contact forces?
All forces between objects are either: - contact forces - the objects are physically touching - non-contact forces - the objects are physically separated.
All forces between objects are either: - contact forces - the objects are physically touching - non-contact forces - the objects are physically separated.
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What examples are there of contact forces?
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension and normal contact force.
Examples of contact forces include friction, air resistance, tension and normal contact force.
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What examples are there of non-contact forces?
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic force and magnetic force.
Examples of non-contact forces are gravitational force, electrostatic force and magnetic force.
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What is the interaction pair between a book being pushed across a table, where a force is produced on each object?
There is an interaction pair of friction forces between a book being pushed and a table. The book experiences a backwards force - this will tend to slow it down. The table experiences a forwards force - this will tend to move it forwards with the book.
Students should be able to describe the interaction between pairs of objects which produce a force on each object. The forces should be able to be represented as vectors.
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What is meant by the term ‘vector quantity’ in terms of forces?
A force is a vector quantity. A vector quantity is a value that has both magnitude (size) and direction.
Force is a vector quantity.
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What do all vector quantities have?
Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
Vector quantities have magnitude and an associated direction.
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How is an arrow used to represent a vector quantity?
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow the direction of the vector quantity.
A vector quantity may be represented by an arrow. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude, and the direction of the arrow the direction of the vector quantity.
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How are scalar quantities different from vector quantities?
Scalar quantities different from vector quantities as scalar quantities have magnitude only.
Scalar quantities have magnitude only.
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How is resultant force calculated?
A resultant force is calculated when a number of forces acting on an object is be replaced by a single force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting together.
A number of forces acting on an object may be replaced by a single force that has the same effect as all the original forces acting together. This single force is called the resultant force.
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What is the resultant force for an aeroplane accelerating with a force of 2300 N when the reaction force of air resistance is 1900 N.
What is the resultant force for an aeroplane accelerating with a force of 2300 N when the reaction force of air resistance is 1900 N is 400 N.
Students should be able to calculate the resultant of two forces that act in a straight line.
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What forces are acting on a car that is speeding up?
The forces acting on a car that is speeding up are acceleration (thrust), air resistance (drag and friction), weight and reaction force.
Students should be able to describe examples of the forces acting on an isolated object or system.
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What is the resultant force for an object in each of the two examples below? 1) http://bit.ly/2EF4n0D 2) http://bit.ly/2BEpgGo
The resultant force for example 1 is the object's weight and reaction forces are balanced. Therefore the resultant force is zero and the object travels at the same height. However, it is accelerating (thrust) as the vector is longer than the air resistance (drag and friction). The resultant force for example 2 is weight as the reaction force and the weight are unbalanced, where the vector for weight is longer.
Students should be able to use free body diagrams to describe qualitatively examples where several forces lead to a resultant force on an object, including balanced forces when the resultant force is zero.
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What happens when two component forces at right angles act together?
When two component forces at right angles act together they have the same effect as the single force.
A single force can be resolved into two components acting at right angles to each other. The two component forces together have the same effect as the single force.
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What piece of equipment is used to measure weight?
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a newtonmeter).
Weight is measured using a calibrated spring-balance (a newtonmeter).
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What is the relationship between the weight of an object and the mass of an object?
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional.
The weight of an object and the mass of an object are directly proportional.
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What does gravitational field strength depend on?
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength at the point where the object is.
The weight of an object depends on the gravitational field strength at the point where the object is.
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What is weight and what causes the force of gravity close to the Earth?
Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the Earth.
Weight is the force acting on an object due to gravity. The force of gravity close to the Earth is due to the gravitational field around the Earth.
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What is the name of the single point of an object where the weight is considered to act?
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point referred to as the object's centre of mass.
The weight of an object may be considered to act at a single point referred to as the object's centre of mass.
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What equation is used to calculate weight? Include the SI units.
The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: weight = mass x gravitational field strength W = m g weight, W, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given.)
The weight of an object can be calculated using the equation: weight = mass x gravitational field strength W = m g weight, W, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg gravitational field strength, g, in newtons per kilogram, N/kg (In any calculation the value of the gravitational field strength (g) will be given.)
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What is happening when is work done on an object?
When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is done on the object.
When a force causes an object to move through a distance work is done on the object.
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When does a force do work on an object?
A force does work on an object when the force causes a displacement of the object.
A force does work on an object when the force causes a displacement of the object.
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What is one joule of work done equal to?
One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a displacement of one metre. 1 joule = 1 newton-metre
One joule of work is done when a force of one newton causes a displacement of one metre. 1 joule = 1 newton-metre
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How many joules are in 76 Nm?
1 joule = 1 newton-metre so 76 joules is equal to 76 Nm.
Students should be able to convert between newton-metres and joules
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What equation is used to calculate work done by a force on an object? Include SI units.
(MS) The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the equation: work done = force ? distance moved along the line of action of the force W = F s work done, W, in joules, J force, F, in newtons, N distance, s, in metres, m
(MS) The work done by a force on an object can be calculated using the equation: work done = force ? distance moved along the line of action of the force W = F s work done, W, in joules, J force, F, in newtons, N distance, s, in metres, m
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What is the energy transfer that occurs when work is done?
Work done and energy transferred are measured in joules (J). The work done on an object can be calculated if the force and distance moved are known. A change in momentum happens when a force is applied to an object that is moving or is able to move.
Students should be able to describe the energy transfer involved when work is done.
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When work is done against the frictional forces acting on an object what happens to the temperature of the object?
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a rise in the temperature of the object.
Work done against the frictional forces acting on an object causes a rise in the temperature of the object.
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What forces are involved in stretching, bending or compressing an object?
Forces may change the shape of an object. An elastic object such as a spring stores elastic potential energy when stretched or squashed. The extension of an elastic object is directly proportional to the force applied.
Students should be able to give examples of the forces involved in stretching, bending or compressing an object
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Why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching, bending or compressing), does more than one force have to be applied?
If one force only is applied to an object, for example a car, then the object will change speed or direction. If we want to change the shape of an object, we have to apply more than one force to it.
Students should be able to explain why, to change the shape of an object (by stretching, bending or compressing), more than one force has to be applied ? this is limited to stationary objects only
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What is the relationship between the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stores?
Provided the spring is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stored are equal.
Provided the spring is not inelastically deformed, the work done on the spring and the elastic potential energy stored are equal.
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What is the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic deformation caused by stretching forces?
Elastic deformation is where a material changes in shape at low stress that is recoverable after the stress is removed. Inelastic deformation is caused a material is stretched beyond its limit of proportionality.
Students should be able to describe the difference between elastic deformation and inelastic deformation caused by stretching forces.
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What is the relationship between extension and force for an elastic object, such as a spring?
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
The extension of an elastic object, such as a spring, is directly proportional to the force applied, provided that the limit of proportionality is not exceeded.
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What is the equation that links force, spring constant and extension? Include SI units.
(MS) force = spring constant ? extension F = k e force, F, in newtons, N spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m extension, e, in metres, m This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic object, where ?e? would be the compression of the object.
(MS) force = spring constant ? extension F = k e force, F, in newtons, N spring constant, k, in newtons per metre, N/m extension, e, in metres, m This relationship also applies to the compression of an elastic object, where ?e? would be the compression of the object.
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What is the difference between a linear and non-linear relationship between force and extension?
A linear relationship between force and extension is a directly proportional one, where a non-linear relationship shows that an elastic object has exceeded its limit of proportionality.
Students should be able to describe the difference between a linear and non-linear relationship between force and extension
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What equation is used to calculate elastic potential energy?
Elastic potential energy can be calculated for the work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up to the limit of proportionality) using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant s extension(squared) E = 0.5 k e(squared)
Students should be able to calculate work done in stretching (or compressing) a spring (up to the limit of proportionality) using the equation: elastic potential energy = 0.5 x spring constant s extension(squared) E = 0.5 k e(squared)
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What causes an object to rotate?
A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate.
A force or a system of forces may cause an object to rotate.
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What examples are there in which forces cause rotation?
Examples in which forces cause rotation include: merry-go round, bike tyres, throwing a ball.
Students should be able to describe examples in which forces cause rotation.
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What is the turning effect of a force called?
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of the force.
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What equation is used to calculate the moment of a force? Include SI units.
(MS) The size of the moment is defined by the equation: moment of a force = force ? distance M = F d moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm force, F, in newtons, N distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force, in metres, m.
(MS) The size of the moment is defined by the equation: moment of a force = force ? distance M = F d moment of a force, M, in newton-metres, Nm force, F, in newtons, N distance, d, is the perpendicular distance from the pivot to the line of action of the force, in metres, m.
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When the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot how are the forces described?
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot.
If an object is balanced, the total clockwise moment about a pivot equals the total anticlockwise moment about that pivot.
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What can be used to transmit the rotational effects of a force?
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to transmit the rotational effects of force
A simple lever and a simple gear system can both be used to transmit the rotational effects of force
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How do levers and gears transmit the rotational effects of forces?
When someone uses a lever, they exert a force (the effort) around a pivot to move an object (the load). Levers rely on the principle of moments to act as 'force multipliers' - they reduce the effort needed to move the load by increasing the distance over which it is acting.
Students should be able to explain how levers and gears transmit the rotational effects of forces.
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What is distance a measure of?
How far an object moves in any direction.
Distance is how far an object moves. Distance does not involve direction.
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Is speed a vector or a scalar quantity and why?
Speed is a scalar quantity as it only has a magnitude (size) and not a direction.
Speed does not involve direction. Speed is a scalar quantity.
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Is distance a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Distance is a scalar quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and not a direction.
Distance is a scalar quantity.
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Is the speed of a moving object normally constant?
No, when people walk, run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
The speed of a moving object is rarely constant. When people walk, run or travel in a car their speed is constantly changing.
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What is displacement a meaure of?
Displacement is how far away an object is in a given direction.
Displacement includes both the distance an object moves, measured in a straight line from the start point to the finish point and the direction of that straight line.
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What are the typical speeds and factors that affect the speeds of people walking, running and cycling?
Walking ? 1.5 m/s Running ? 3 m/s Cycling ? 6 m/s. Age, terrain, fitness, and distance travelled.
The speed at which a person can walk, run or cycle depends on many factors including: age, terrain, fitness and distance travelled. Typical values may be taken as: walking ? 1.5 m/s running ? 3 m/s cycling ? 6 m/s.
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Is displacement a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Displacement is a vetor quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and a direction.
Displacement is a vector quantity.
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Is the speed of sound normally constant?
No, it varies as does the wind.
It is not only moving objects that have varying speed. The speed of sound and the speed of the wind also vary.
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What is the typical speed of sound in air?
The speed of sound in air is 330 m/s.
A typical value for the speed of sound in air is 330 m/s
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What is the equation used to calculate the distance travelled and what are the units involved?
The equation used to calculate the distance travelled is: distance travelled = speed ? time s = v t distance, s, in metres, m speed, v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
(MS) For an object moving at constant speed the distance travelled in a specific time can be calculated using the equation: distance travelled = speed ? time s = v t distance, s, in metres, m speed, v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
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What is the equation used to calculate the average speed for non-uniform motion?
Average speed = Total distance / total time taken
(MS) Students should be able to calculate average speed for non-uniform motion.
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What is velocity a measure of?
Velocity is a speed in a given direction.
The velocity of an object is its speed in a given direction.
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How can the distance travelled by an object in a straight line be represented?
If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance?time graph.
If an object moves along a straight line, the distance travelled can be represented by a distance?time graph.
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Is velocity a vector or scalar quantity and why?
Velocity is a vetor quanity as it only has a magnitude (size) and a direction.
Velocity is a vector quantity.
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How can the speed of an object be calculated from a distance-time graph?
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance?time graph. The gradient of a graph is change of y divided by change in x, in this case is change in distance divided by change in time.
The speed of an object can be calculated from the gradient of its distance?time graph.
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What are the vector - scalar pairs?
The vector - scalar pairs are displacement : distance velocity : speed
Students should be able to explain the vector?scalar distinction as it applies to displacement, distance, velocity and speed.
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(HT only) If an object is accelerating, how can the speed at a time be determined from a distance-time graph?
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance?time graph at that time.
(HT only) If an object is accelerating, its speed at any particular time can be determined by drawing a tangent and measuring the gradient of the distance?time graph at that time.
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(HT only) What is constant and what is changing during circular motion?
(HT only) speed is constant velocity is changing as direction is changing
HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively, with examples, that motion in a circle involves constant speed but changing velocity.
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What axis does time go on for a distance-time graph?
Time goes on the x-axis of a distance-time graph.
Students should be able to draw distance?time graphs from measurements and extract and interpret lines and slopes of distance?time graphs, translating information between graphical and numerical form.
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What is the equation used to calculate the average acceleration of an object and what are the units involved?
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation: acceleration = change in velocity time taken a = ? v t acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 change in velocity, ?v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
The average acceleration of an object can be calculated using the equation: acceleration = change in velocity time taken a = ? v t acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 change in velocity, ?v, in metres per second, m/s time, t, in seconds, s
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What does decelerating mean?
Decelerating means slowing down.
An object that slows down is decelerating
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(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret the changing motion in terms of the forces acting.
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How can the acceleration of an object be calculated from a velocity-time graph?
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity?time graph. The gradient of a graph is change of y divided by change in x, in this case is change in velocity divided by change in time.
The acceleration of an object can be calculated from the gradient of a velocity?time graph.
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What equation applies to uniform acceleration and what are the units involved?
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: final velocity2 ? initial velocity2 = 2 ? acceleration ? distance v2 ? u2 = 2 a s final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 distance, s, in metres, m"
The following equation applies to uniform acceleration: final velocity 2 ? initial velocity 2 = 2 ? acceleration ? distance v2 ? u2 = 2 a s final velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s initial velocity, u, in metres per second, m/s acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2 distance, s, in metres, m
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What acceration does an object falling freely under gravity, near the Earth?s surface any object have?
Near the Earth?s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
Near the Earth?s surface any object falling freely under gravity has an acceleration of about 9.8 m/s2.
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What axis does time go on for a velocity-time graph?
Time goes on the x-axis of a velocity-time graph.
Students should be able to draw velocity?time graphs from measurements and interpret lines and slopes to determine acceleration
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(HT only) How can the distance travelled be calculated from a velocity-time graph?
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity?time graph. Split the area into simple shapes and add up the areas.
(HT only) The distance travelled by an object (or displacement of an object) can be calculated from the area under a velocity?time graph
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(HT only)
(HT only)
(HT only) interpret enclosed areas in velocity?time graphs to determine distance travelled (or displacement)
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(HT only) For curved lines on a velocity-time graph, how can the area be measured?
(HT only) Counting squares that are more than half below the line.
(HT only) measure, when appropriate, the area under a velocity?time graph by counting squares.
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Why do objects falling through a fluid reach a terminal velocity?
An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its terminal velocity.
An object falling through a fluid initially accelerates due to the force of gravity. Eventually the resultant force will be zero and the object will move at its terminal velocity.
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What is Newton's Third Law?
Newton's Third Law states that whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
Newton's Third Law: Whenever two objects interact, the forces they exert on each other are equal and opposite.
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What would happen to an object if the resultant force acting upon it is zero and the object is stationary?
Newtons first law states that if the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is stationary, the object remains stationary.
Newton's First Law: If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is stationary, the object remains stationary. If the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
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What would happen to an object if the resultant force acting upon it is zero and the object is moving?
Newtons first law states that If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
Newton's First Law: If the resultant force acting on an object is zero and the object is moving, the object continues to move at the same speed and in the same direction. So the object continues to move at the same velocity.
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How can Newton's Third Law be applied to examples of equilibrium?
Every action has an equal and opposite reaction therefore if the external forces are zero then every part of a system is zero, It will be in equilibrium
Students should be able to apply Newton's Third Law to examples of equilibrium situations.
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What is the equation that links resultant force, mass and acceleration?
F=ma force, in Newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
As an equation: resultant force = mass x acceleration F = m a force, F, in newtons, N mass, m, in kilograms, kg acceleration, a, in metres per second squared, m/s2
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If the resistive forces balance the driving force what happens to the vehicle in terms of speed?
When the resistive forces balance the driving force the vehicle travels at a steady speed.
When a vehicle travels at a steady speed the resistive forces balance the driving force.
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When will the velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object change?
The velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
The velocity (speed and/or direction) of an object will only change if a resultant force is acting on the object.
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How can Newtons first law be applied to the motion of an object moving with uniform velocity and objects where the speed and/or direction changes?
Newtons first law explains that forces acting upon a body cause the motion of that body to change. When opposite forces become unbalanced the objects speed and/or direction will change. When forces are balanced and moving with uniform velocity the speed and/or direction will continue to remain the same.
Students should be able to apply Newton's First Law to explain the motion of objects moving with a uniform velocity and objects where the speed and/or direction changes.
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What is Newton's second law?
Newton's Second Law states the acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
Newton's Second Law: The acceleration of an object is proportional to the resultant force acting on the object, and inversely proportional to the mass of the object.
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What is the typical mass of a cyslist, car and lorry?
the mass of a small family car is 2000Kg, cyclist is 100Kg and a lorry 50000Kg. These could be used along with information about speed or acceleration.
Students should be able to estimate the speed, accelerations and forces involved in large accelerations for everyday road transport.
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what is the momentum equation and units?
Momentum is defined by the equation: momentum = mass ? velocity p=mv, momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s, mass, m, in kilograms, kg, velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
Momentum is defined by the equation: momentum = mass ? velocity p = m v momentum, p, in kilograms metre per second, kg m/s mass, m, in kilograms, kg velocity, v, in metres per second, m/s
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two model cars collide reversing into one another), the blue car has a of mass 1.2Kg and the red car has a mass of 1.4 kg they collide at speeds of 0.5m/s (blue) and 0.2m/s (red) what is the velocity of the cars after the collision?
0.12m/s/s
Students should be able to complete calculations involving an event, such as the collision of two objects.
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The equations F = m × a and a = ( v - u ) / t combine to give what equation?
F = m Δ v / Δ t
When a force acts on an object that is moving, or able to move, a change in momentum occurs. The equations F = m × a and a = ( v − u ) / t combine to give the equation F = m Δ v / Δ t where mΔv = change in momentum ie force equals the rate of change of momentum.
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(HT only) What is the definition of inertial mass?
(HT only) inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain that inertial mass is defined as the ratio of force over acceleration.
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What is conservation of momentum?
Conservation of momentum is when in a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event.
In a closed system, the total momentum before an event is equal to the total momentum after the event. This is called conservation of momentum.
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In terms of rate of change of momentum, how do different examples of safety features work?
air bags, seat belts, gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and cushioned surfaces. They deform and they increase the amount of time the person takes to come to a stop. They provide a softer surface (like a pillow) and seatbelts protect people in two ways during a crash. The seatbelt prevents the person being thrown about in the car, possibly through the windscreen or hitting themselves on the steering wheel or other objects. The seatbelt also stretches a little, while restraining the person during a crash. The stretching increases the amount of time it takes the person to stop. to prevent the people hitting themselves on hard objects
Students should be able to explain safety features such as: air bags, seat belts, gymnasium crash mats, cycle helmets and cushioned surfaces for playgrounds with reference to the concept of rate of change of momentum.
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What is the symbol that indicates an approximate value or approximate answer?
~ is the symbol that indicates an approximate value
Students should recognise and be able to use the symbol that indicates an approximate value or approximate answer ~
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Explain what happens to momentum in a collision?
The total momentum before the collision is the sum of both momentums.
Students should be able to use the concept of momentum as a model to describe and explain examples of momentum in an event, such as a collision
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What is inertial mass a measure of?
inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object
(HT only) Students should be able to explain that inertial mass is a measure of how difficult it is to change the velocity of an object
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(HT only) What is the definition of inertia?
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform motion.
(HT only) The tendency of objects to continue in their state of rest or of uniform motion is called inertia.
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What are poor vehicle conditions limited to?
they are limited to brakes or tyres.
Poor condition of the vehicle is limited to the vehicle's brakes or tyres.
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What is the definition of stoppong distance?
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the vehicle travels during the driver?s reaction time (thinking distance) and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking distance).
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of the distance the vehicle travels during the driver's reaction time (thinking distance) and the distance it travels under the braking force (braking distance).
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What can the braking distance of a vehicle be affected by?
It can be affected by adverse road and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
The braking distance of a vehicle can be affected by adverse road and weather conditions and poor condition of the vehicle.
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What affect would an increased speed for a given breaking force have on stopping distance?
Stopping distance would be greater.
For a given braking force the greater the speed of the vehicle, the greater the stopping distance.
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What are adverse road conditions?
wet, icy, potholes and uneven surfaces are considered to be adverse road conditions.
Adverse road conditions include wet or icy conditions.
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Does every person have the same reaction time? Explain
No, reaction times vary from person to person.
Reaction times vary from person to person.
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What is the typical value range for the reaction time of a typical person?
The typical values range from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
Typical values range from 0.2 s to 0.9 s.
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How can a driver's reaction time be affected?
A driver's reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and alcohol.
A driver's reaction time can be affected by tiredness, drugs and alcohol.
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(Physics only) How does the distance for a vehicle to make an emergency stop vary over a range of speeds typical for that vehicle.
(Physics only) The faster the vehicle is going the greater the distance would be to come to a stop.
(Physics only) Students should be able to estimate how the distance for a vehicle to make an emergency stop varies over a range of speeds typical for that vehicle. (MS)
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What else could affect a driver's ability to react?
Distractions such as mobile phones or other people in the car.
Distractions may also affect a driver?s ability to react.
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Whatwould the estimate of the distance required for road vehicles to stop in an emergency varies over a range of speeds be; 30mph, 40mph and 60mph?
30mph - 23m 40mph - 36m 60mph -73m
Students should be able to estimate how the distance required for road vehicles to stop in an emergency varies over a range of typical speeds.
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(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students will be required to interpret graphs relating speed to stopping distance for a range of vehicles. (MS)
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What methods could be used to measure human reaction times?
How quickly a person can click on seeing a specified object, catching a ruler when it is dropped.
Students should be able to explain methods used to measure human reaction times and recall typical results
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When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, how does the work done by the forces between the brakes affect the kinetic energy and temperature of the brakes?
When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
When a force is applied to the brakes of a vehicle, work done by the friction force between the brakes and the wheel reduces the kinetic energy of the vehicle and the temperature of the brakes increases.
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How could you interpret and evaluate the following results; person A had a reaction time of 3s, Person B had a reaction time of 4s and person C has a reaction time of 9s?
Person A and B had similar reaction times but person C was very much slower by 5-6s, they may have had a factor that affected their reaction time and therfore it may be useful to repeat to gain more results.
Students should be able to interpret and evaluate measurements from simple methods to measure the different reaction times of students
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what is the relationship between the speed of a vehicle and the braking force needed to stop the vehicle?
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
The greater the speed of a vehicle the greater the braking force needed to stop the vehicle in a certain distance.
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How does increasing the braking force affect deceleration and brake heat?
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or loss of control.
The greater the braking force the greater the deceleration of the vehicle. Large decelerations may lead to brakes overheating and/or loss of control.
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What are the dangers caused by large decelerations?
skidding, tyre blow-outs, loss of control of the vehicle, crashes.
Students should be able to explain the dangers caused by large decelerations
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(HT only) What is the force if the mass of a vehicle os 2000Kg and the acceleration is 12m/s/s?
(HT only) Force = 2000 x 12 = 24000N
Students should be able to (HT only) estimate the forces involved in the deceleration of road vehicles in typical situations on a public road.
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Name the two different types of waves.
The two types of waves are called transverse and longitudinal.
Waves may be either transverse or longitudinal.
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What are the ripples on a water surface examples of?
The ripples on a water surface are examples of transverse waves.
The ripples on a water surface are an example of a transverse wave
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What types of waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
The type of waves that show compression and rarefaction are called longitudinal waves.
Longitudinal waves show areas of compression and rarefaction.
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What type of wave is a sound wave?
Sounds waves are examples of longitudinal waves.
Sound waves travelling through air are longitudinal.
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What is the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
In a transverse waves, the oscillations (vibrations) are at right angles to the direction of travel and energy transfer. In longitudinal waves, the oscillations are along the same direction as the direction of travel and energy transfer.
Students should be able to describe the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves.
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Do the waves in air or the wave in the water travel?
For both ripples on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that travels.
Students should be able to describe evidence that, for both ripples on a water surface and sound waves in air, it is the wave and not the water or air itself that travels.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of amplitude.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their amplitude.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of wavelength.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their wavelength.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of frequency.
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their frequency.
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How can you describe wave motion?
Wave motion can be described in terms of period?
Students should be able to describe wave motion in terms of their period.
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What is meant by amplitude of wave.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of a point on a wave away from its undisturbed position.
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What is meant by wavelength?
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the equivalent point on the adjacent
The wavelength of a wave is the distance from a point on one wave to the equivalent point on the adjacent wave.
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What is the frequency of a wave?
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second.
The frequency of a wave is the number of waves passing a point each second.
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What does period and frequency equal to?
Period = 1 / freqency T = 1 / f
Period = 1 / freqency T = 1 / f
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What is wave speed?
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave moves) through the medium.
The wave speed is the speed at which the energy is transferred (or the wave moves) through the medium.
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What is the equation that links the frequency, wave speed and wavelength?
Wave speed = frequency x wavelength; v = f x λ
All waves obey the wave equation: wave speed = frequency x wavelength v = f x λ
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Identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
Students should be able to identify amplitude and wavelength from given diagrams
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What method could be used to measure the speed of sound waves in air.
Over a long distance time how long it takes an observed sound to be heard. Use an oscilliscope.
Students should be able to describe a method to measure the speed of sound waves in air.
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What method would you use to work out the speed of ripples on a water surface?
speed = frequency x wavelength To work out frequency: Count how many waves pass a point over a 10 second period of time. Wavelength: measure the length of 10 waves.
Students should be able to describe a method to measure the speed of ripples on a water surface. (Req Prac)
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(Physics only) What affects a sound wave?
(Physics only) The velocity, frequency and wavelength.
(Physics only) Students should be able to show how changes in velocity, frequency and wavelength, in transmission of sound waves from one medium to another, are inter-related.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave has a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans?
Ultrasound waves
Ultrasound waves have a frequency higher than the upper limit of hearing for humans.
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(HT and Physics Only) What evidence did study of seismic waves provide?
(HT and Physics Only) Provided new evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which are not directly observable.
Students should be aware that the study of seismic waves provided new evidence that led to discoveries about parts of the Earth which are not directly observable.
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(Physics Only) What produces Seismic waves?
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes.
Seismic waves are produced by earthquakes.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave is a P wave?
P-waves are longitudinal, seismic waves.
P-waves are longitudinal, seismic waves.
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(Physics Only) What type of wave is a S wave?
S-waves are transverse, seismic waves.
S-waves are transverse, seismic waves.
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(Physics Only) What can S waves not travel through?
S-waves cannot travel through a liquid.
S-waves cannot travel through a liquid.
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(Physics Only) What do P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for?
P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for the structure and size of the Earth's core.
P-waves and S-waves provide evidence for the structure and size of the Earth?s core.
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(HT and Physics Only) How can objects in deep water be detected?
(HT and Physics Only) Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to detect objects in deep water and measure water depth.
Echo sounding, using high frequency sound waves is used to detect objects in deep water and measure water depth.
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(Physics only) How do sound waves travel?
Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the solid.
Sound waves can travel through solids causing vibrations in the solid.
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(Physics only) What causes the sensation of sound?
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to vibrate which causes the sensation of sound.
Within the ear, sound waves cause the ear drum and other parts to vibrate which causes the sensation of sound.
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(Physics only) What restricts the limits of human hearing?
The conversion of sound waves to vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency range.
The conversion of sound waves to vibrations of solids works over a limited frequency range. This restricts the limits of human hearing.
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(Physics only) What causes wave disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids?
Examples may include the effect of sound waves on the ear drum.
Students should be able to describe, with examples, processes which convert wave disturbances between sound waves and vibrations in solids. Examples may include the effect of sound waves on the ear drum
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(Physics only)
Students should be able to explain why such processes only work over a limited frequency range and the relevance of this to human hearing.
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(Physics only) What is the normal range of human hearing?
The range of normal human hearing is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
Students should know that the range of normal human hearing is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
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(Physics Only) How is the light in the visible light spectrum different?
Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow band of wavelength and frequency.
Each colour within the visible light spectrum has its own narrow band of wavelength and frequency.
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(Physics Only)What types of waves are electromagnetic?
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber.
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer energy from the source of the waves to an absorber.
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(Physics Only) What type of spectrum do Electromagnetic waves form?
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum.
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum.
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(Physics Only) What type of speed to electromagnetic waves travel?
All types of electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or air.
All types of electromagnetic wave travel at the same velocity through a vacuum (space) or air.
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(Physics Only) How are the electromagnetic waves grouped?
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in terms of their wavelength and their frequency.
The waves that form the electromagnetic spectrum are grouped in terms of their wavelength and their frequency.
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What is the order of electromagnetic waves from biggest wavelength to shortest wavelength?
Going from long to short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
Going from long to short wavelength (or from low to high frequency) the groups are: radio, microwave, infrared, visible light (red to violet), ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays.
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(Physics Only) What type of electromagnetic waves do human eyes detect?
Human eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of electromagnetic waves.
Our eyes only detect visible light and so detect a limited range of electromagnetic waves.
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List the practical applications of electromagnetic waves.
- radio waves - television and radio - microwaves - satellite communications, cooking food - infrared - electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras - visible light - fibre optic communications - ultraviolet - energy efficient lamps, sun tanning - X-rays and gamma rays - medical imaging and treatments.
Electromagnetic waves have many practical applications. For example: - radio waves - television and radio - microwaves - satellite communications, cooking food - infrared - electrical heaters, cooking food, infrared cameras - visible light - fibre optic communications - ultraviolet - energy efficient lamps, sun tanning - X-rays and gamma rays - medical imaging and treatments.
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(HT only) How are radio waves produced?
(HT only) Radio waves are produced by oscillations in electrical circuits.
(HT only) Radio waves can be produced by oscillations in electrical circuits.
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How can electromagnetic waves be generated?
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in electromagnetic waves being generated
Changes in atoms and the nuclei of atoms can result in electromagnetic waves being generated or absorbed over a wide frequency range.
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What types of waves are hazardous on human body tissue.
X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human body tissue.
Ultraviolet waves, X-rays and gamma rays can have hazardous effects on human body tissue.
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How are gamma rays generated?
Gamma rays are emitted from the nucleus. They have no charge or mass.
Gamma rays originate from changes in the nucleus of an atom.
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What effects can Ultraviolet waves cause to the skin?
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of skin cancer.
Ultraviolet waves can cause skin to age prematurely and increase the risk of skin cancer.
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What are three ways that show energy is transferred by electromagnetic waves?
Some examples of how electromagnetic waves transfer energy are: Radio waves - radios in communication Microwaves - ovens for heating food Infrared radiation - wireless remote controls Ultraviolet - Ultrasound scans Visible light - heat and light from light bulb X-Ray: energy passes through tissue but stopped by bone in X ray imaging Gamma: Energy used to kill pathogens during sterilisation of medical equipment
Students should be able to give examples that illustrate the transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves.
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What effects the outcome of being exposed to radiation?
The type of radiation and the size of the dose.
The effects depend on the type of radiation and the size of the dose.
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What are the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation?
The risks of exposure to radiation can include radiation poisoning and cancer.
Students should be able to draw conclusions from given data about the risks and consequences of exposure to radiation.
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What type of electromagnetic waves are ionising?
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.
X-rays and gamma rays are ionising radiation that can cause the mutation of genes and cancer.
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(HT only) What type of current is produced when radiowaves are absorbed?
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating current.
(HT only) When radio waves are absorbed they may create an alternating current with the same frequency as the radio wave itself, so radio waves can themselves induce oscillations in an electrical circuit.
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(HT only) How can the wavelength of electromagnetic waves be varied?
(HT only) Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect electromagnetic waves
Different substances may absorb, transmit, refract or reflect electromagnetic waves in ways that vary with wavelength.
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What units is radiation measured in?
Radiation dose is measured in sieverts
Radiation dose (in sieverts) is a measure of the risk of harm resulting from an exposure of the body to the radiation.
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How many millisieverts are there in 1 sievert?
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv)
1000 millisieverts (mSv) = 1 sievert (Sv) Students will not be required to recall the unit of radiation dose.
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(HT only) Why is each type of electromagnetic wave suitable for practical application?
Each member of the electromagnetic wave is suitable for a practical application because it has a small range of frequency and wave length.
(HT only) Students should be able to give brief explanations why each type of electromagnetic wave is suitable for the practical application.
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(Physics only) Do only perfect black bodies (objects) emit radiation?
All bodies (objects) emit radiation.
Students should be able to explain that all bodies (objects) emit radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What is happening in terms of radiation and emission when a body is at a constant temperature?
(HT only)A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at the same rate as it is emitting radiation.
(HT only) A body at constant temperature is absorbing radiation at the same rate as it is emitting radiation.
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(Physics only) At what temperature do all bodies (objects) emit and absorb infrared radiation?
All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infrared radiation.
All bodies (objects), no matter what temperature, emit and absorb infrared radiation.
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(Physics only) What is the relationship between temperature and radiation of infrared radiation?
The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given time
The hotter the body, the more infrared radiation it radiates in a given time.
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(Physics only) What colour object would be the best absorbed and emitter of radiation?
Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect black body (object) would be the best possible emitter.
Since a good absorber is also a good emitter, a perfect black body would be the best possible emitter.
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(Physics only) What factors affect the intensity and wavelength distribution of emissions from a body (object)?
The intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends on the temperature of the body.
Students should be able to explain that the intensity and wavelength distribution of any emission depends on the temperature of the body.
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(Physics only) What is a perfect black body (object)?
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it. A black body does not reflect or transmit any radiation.
A perfect black body is an object that absorbs all of the radiation incident on it. A black body does not reflect or transmit any radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What happens when the temperature of a body (object) increases?
(HT only)The temperature of a body increases when the body absorbs radiation faster than it emits radiation.
(HT only) The temperature of a body increases when the body absorbs radiation faster than it emits radiation.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What factors can affect the temperature of the Earth?
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors including: the rates of absorption and emission of radiation, reflection of radiation into space.
(HT only) The temperature of the Earth depends on many factors including: the rates of absorption and emission of radiation, reflection of radiation into space.
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(HT only) (Physics only) Give an example of when the balance between incoming radiation absorbed and radiation emitted results in a constant temperature of a body (object)
(HT only) The constant temperature of the Earth.
(HT only) Students should be able to explain how the temperature of a body is related to the balance between incoming radiation absorbed and radiation emitted, using everyday examples to illustrate this balance, and the example of the factors which determine the temperature of the Earth.
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(HT only) (Physics only) What affect to the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere would an increase in radiation absorbed have?
(HT only) If the amount of radiation absorbed by the Earth's atmosphere was to increase, the overall temperature of the Earth would also increase.
(HT only) Students should be able to use information, or draw/ interpret diagrams to show how radiation affects the temperature of the Earth's surface and atmosphere.
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How are waves absorbed or transmitted?
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between two different materials.
Waves can be absorbed or transmitted at the boundary between two different materials.
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(Physics only) What is spectacular reflection?
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called specular reflection.
Reflection from a smooth surface in a single direction is called specular reflection.
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(Physics only) What is diffused reflection?
Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering: this is called diffuse reflection.
Reflection from a rough surface causes scattering: this is called diffuse reflection.
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Where are rays reflected from?
Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different materials.
Waves can be reflected at the boundary between two different materials.
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What can the time taken for the reflections to reach a detector be used to determine?
The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how far away such a boundary is. This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging.
The time taken for the reflections to reach a detector can be used to determine how far away such a boundary is. This allows ultrasound waves to be used for both medical and industrial imaging.
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(Physics Only)How could a ray diagram to illustrate the reflection of a wave at a surface?
A ray diagram could be used to show a reflection using straight lines with arrows on to show the direction of the light wave. The light wave would bounce back at the same angle.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the reflection of a wave at a surface.
0
What happens to Ultrasound waves when they meet a boundary?
Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a boundary between two different media.
Ultrasound waves are partially reflected when they meet a boundary between two different media.
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(Physics Only) Explain how the differences in velocity, absorption and reflection between different types of wave in solids and liquids can be used both for detection and exploration of structures which are hidden from direct observation?
Students should be able to explain in qualitative terms, how the differences in velocity, absorption and reflection between different types of wave in solids and liquids can be used both for detection and exploration of structures which are hidden from direct observation.
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How should ray diagrams to illustrate the refraction, be constructed?
Use a ruler;Wave fronts at right angle to ray; Wave fronts closer together when the wave travels slower.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the refraction of a wave at the boundary between two different media.
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(HT only) What is the cause of refraction?
(HT only) Due to the difference in velocity of the waves in different substances, caused by the density of the particles.
Some effects, for example refraction, are due to the difference in velocity of the waves in different substances.
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(HT only) How can refraction be explained?
(HT only) Wave front diagrams can be used to explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.
Students should be able to use wave front diagrams to explain refraction in terms of the change of speed that happens when a wave travels from one medium to a different medium.
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(Physics Only)What are the effects of reflection, transmission and absorption of waves at material interfaces?
The effects at material interfaces for: reflection are that the wave bounces back at the same angle if the surface is smooth (specular reflection). A rough surface will produce diffused reflection with scattered reflection of the waves. Transmission: If the object is transparent and light can pass through at the same frequency the light waves are said to be transmitted. Absorption of electromagnetic waves will vary between different materials and how easily they will absorb infrared radiation.
Students should be able to describe the effects of reflection, transmission and absorption of waves at material interfaces.
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(Physics Only)What is the focal length?
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
The distance from the lens to the principal focus is called the focal length.
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(Physics only) What is the equation that links image height, magnification and object height?
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the equation: magnification = image height / object height
The magnification produced by a lens can be calculated using the equation: magnification = image height / object height
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(Physics only) What are the units for magnification?
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units.
Magnification is a ratio and so has no units.
0
(Physics only) What is the unit for image height?
Image height and object height should both be measured in either mm or cm.
Image height and object height should both be measured in either mm or cm.
0
(Physics Only) How can images by convex and concave lenses be represented?
Ray diagrams are used to show the formation of images by convex and concave lenses.
Ray diagrams are used to show the formation of images by convex and concave lenses.
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(Physics Only) How could you illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses?
Drawing ray diagrams to illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.
Students should be able to construct ray diagrams to illustrate the similarities and differences between convex and concave lenses.
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(Physics Only) How are convex lenses represented in ray diagrams?
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by: <-->
In ray diagrams a convex lens will be represented by: <-->
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(Physics Only) How are concave lenses represented in ray diagrams?
[In ray diagrams] a concave lens will be represented by: >--<
[In ray diagrams] a concave lens will be represented by: >--<
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(Physics Only) What type of images can be produced by convex lens?
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual.
The image produced by a convex lens can be either real or virtual.
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(Physics Only) What type of image can be produced by concave lens?
The image produced by a concave lens is always virtual.
The image produced by a concave lens is always virtual.
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(Physics Only) How does a lens form an image?
A lens forms an image by refracting light.
A lens forms an image by refracting light.
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(Physics Only) How is a convex lens used to focus an image?
In a convex lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus at the principal focus.
In a convex lens, parallel rays of light are brought to a focus at the principal focus.
0
(Physics only) How do colour filters work?
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour) and transmitting other wavelengths (and colour).
Colour filters work by absorbing certain wavelengths (and colour) and transmitting other wavelengths (and colour).
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(Physics only) How is the colour of an opaque object determined?
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths of light are more strongly reflected.
The colour of an opaque object is determined by which wavelengths of light are more strongly reflected.
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(Physics only) What colour is observed when all wavelengths of light are reflected equally?
If all wavelengths are reflected equally the object appears white.
If all wavelengths are reflected equally the object appears white.
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(Physics only) What is the difference between a transparent and translucent object?
When waves are transmitted, the wave continues through the material. They are transparent because light is transmitted with very little absorption. Translucent materials transmit some light but are not completely clear.
Objects that transmit light are either transparent or translucent.
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(Physics only) What happens to wavelengths of light that are not reflected by an object?
Wavelengths that are not reflected are absorbed.
Wavelengths that are not reflected are absorbed.
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(Physics only) What colour is observed if all wavelengths of light are absorbed?
If all wavelengths are absorbed the objects appears black.
If all wavelengths are absorbed the objects appears black.
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(Physics only) In terms of light, why does an object appears to be red and translucent?
An object appears red when the red wavelength of light is reflected, all other wavelengths of light are absorbed. The object appears translucent because some of the light is transmitted.
Students should be able to explain how the colour of an object is related to the differential absorption, transmission and reflection of different wavelengths of light by the object.
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(Physics only) How can an orange light be produced using coloured filters?
An orange filter transmits orange light but absorbs all the other colours. If white light is shone on an orange filter, only the orange wavelengths will be observed by the human eye.
Students should be able to explain the effect of viewing objects through filters or the effect on light of passing through filters
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(Physics only) In terms of light, why does an object appear to be green and opaque?
An object appears green when the green wavelength of light is reflected, all other wavelengths of light are absorbed. The object appears opaque because none of the light is transmitted.
Students should be able to explain why an opaque object has a particular colour.
0
What are the poles of a magnet?
The poles of a magnet are the places where the magnetic forces are strongest.
Poles of a magnet
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What is the magnetic field?
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called the magnetic field.
The region around a magnet where a force acts on another magnet or on a magnetic material (iron, steel, cobalt and nickel) is called the magnetic field.
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What force is always between a magnet and a magnetic material?
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one of attraction.
The force between a magnet and a magnetic material is always one of attraction.
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What happens when two magnets are brought close together?
When two magnets are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
When two magnets are brought close together they exert a force on each other.
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What does the strength of the magnetic field depend on and where is it the strongest?
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the distance from the magnet. The field is strongest at the poles of the magnet.
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What happens when two like poles are brought together?
Two like poles repel each other.
Two like poles repel each other.
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What affects the direction of the magnetic field?
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at that point.
The direction of the magnetic field at any point is given by the direction of the force that would act on another north pole placed at that point.
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What happens when two unlike poles are brought together?
Two unlike poles attract each other.
Two unlike poles attract each other.
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What direction does the magnetic field line go in?
The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north (seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the magnet.
The direction of a magnetic field line is from the north (seeking) pole of a magnet to the south(seeking) pole of the magnet.
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What type of force are attraction and repulsion between magnetic poles examples of?
Attraction and repulsion between two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
Attraction and repulsion between two magnetic poles are examples of non-contact force.
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What causes a magnetic compass to follow the direction of the Earth's magnetic field?
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
A magnetic compass contains a small bar magnet. The Earth has a magnetic field. The compass needle points in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field.
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What is a permanent magnet?
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field.
A permanent magnet produces its own magnetic field.
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How can a plotting compass be used to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NT-KS9dscjw
Students should be able to describe how to plot the magnetic field pattern of a magnet using a compass.
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What is an induced magnet?
An induced magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field.
An induced magnet is a material that becomes a magnet when it is placed in a magnetic field.
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What force does induced magnetism always cause?
Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction.
Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction.
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Why does a compass point North?
The core of the Earth is magnetic.
Students should be able to explain how the behaviour of a magnetic compass is related to evidence that the core of the Earth must be magnetic.
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What happens to an induced magnet when it's removed from the magnetic field?
When removed from the magnetic field an induced magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
When removed from the magnetic field an induced magnet loses most/all of its magnetism quickly.
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How do the poles of the magnets interact?
Repulsion occurs between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets.
Students should be able to describe the attraction and repulsion between unlike and like poles for permanent magnets
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What is the difference between permanent and induced magnets
Induced magnets can be switched on and off unlike permenant magnets.
Students should be able to describe the difference between permanent and induced magnets.
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What happens when a current flows through a conducting wire?
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced.
When a current flows through a conducting wire a magnetic field is produced around the wire.
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What does the strength of the magnetic field depends on?
The current through the wire and the distance from the wire.
The strength of the magnetic field depends on the current through the wire and the distance from the wire.
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How does shaping a wire into a solenoid affect strength of the magnetic field?
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field created by a current through the
Shaping a wire to form a solenoid increases the strength of the magnetic field created by a current through the wire.
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What is the magnetic field like inside a solenoid?
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
The magnetic field inside a solenoid is strong and uniform.
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What is the shape of the magnetic field around a solenoid?
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of a bar magnet.
The magnetic field around a solenoid has a similar shape to that of a bar magnet.
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How does adding an iron core affect the magnetic field?
Adding an iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid.
Adding an iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field of a solenoid.
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What is an electromagnet?
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core.
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core.
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Describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated
The magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated using iron fillings and a moving a compass around the magnets by plotting north.
Students should be able to describe how the magnetic effect of a current can be demonstrated
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What does the magnetic field around a straight wire look like?
Students should be able to draw the magnetic field pattern for a straight wire carrying a current and for a solenoid (showing the direction of the field)
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How does a solenoid arrangement increase the magnetic effect of the current?
Students should be able to explain how a solenoid arrangement can increase the magnetic effect of the current.
0
(Physics only)
(Physics only)
(Physics only) Students should be able to interpret diagrams of electromagnetic devices in order to explain how they work.
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(HT only) What is meant by the motor effect?
When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on each other. This is called the motor effect.
When a conductor carrying a current is placed in a magnetic field the magnet producing the field and the conductor exert a force on each other. This is called the motor effect.
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What factors affect the size of the forces on the conductor?
The factors that affect the size of the force on the conductor are the current and the strength of the magnetic field.
Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the force on the conductor.
0
How is magnetic flux density calculated? Include SI units.
For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a current: force = magnetic flux density ? current ? length F = B I l force, F, in newtons, N magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) length, l, in metres, m
For a conductor at right angles to a magnetic field and carrying a current: force = magnetic flux density ? current ? length F = B I l force, F, in newtons, N magnetic flux density, B, in tesla, T current, I, in amperes, A (amp is acceptable for ampere) length, l, in metres, m
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What is the basis of an electric motor?
A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate. This is the basis of an electric motor.
A coil of wire carrying a current in a magnetic field tends to rotate. This is the basis of an electric motor.
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How does the force on a conductor in a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor?
A simple electric motor can be built using a coil of wire that is free to rotate between two opposite magnetic poles. When an electric current flows through the coil, the coil experiences a force and moves. One side moves up and the other side moves down (based on Fleming's left hand rule).
Students should be able to explain how the force on a conductor in a magnetic field causes the rotation of the coil in an electric motor.
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(Physics only) How do loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect?
(Physics only) Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert variations in current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in sound waves.
(Physics only) Loudspeakers and headphones use the motor effect to convert variations in current in electrical circuits to the pressure variations in sound waves.
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(Physics only) How do moving coil loudspeakers and headphones work?
(Physics only) Headphones and moving-coil loudspeakers work by transforming electrical signals into sound. They do this by using an electromagnet held inside a permanent magnet's field. The electric current around the amplifier constantly changes, and in changing it also changes the magnetic field around the electromagnet. This causes changing attraction and repulsion between the two magnets making the electromagnet move backwards and forwards. This movement causes sound waves.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil loudspeaker and headphones work.
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(Physics only) How are potential differences induced across the ends of conductors?
(Physics only) If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if there is a change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor.
(Physics only) If an electrical conductor moves relative to a magnetic field or if there is a change in the magnetic field around a conductor, a potential difference is induced across the ends of the conductor.
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(Physics only) What is the generator effect?
(Physics only) The generator effect occurs if a conductor is part of a complete circuit and therefore induces a current.
(Physics only) If the conductor is part of a complete circuit, a current is induced in the conductor. This is called the generator effect.
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(Physics only) What effect does an induced current have?
(Physics only) An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the original change, either the movement of the conductor or the change in magnetic field.
(Physics only) An induced current generates a magnetic field that opposes the original change, either the movement of the conductor or the change in magnetic field.
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(Physics only) What factors affect the size of the induced potential difference or induced current?
The factors that affect the size of the induced potential difference/induced current are the speed of the magnet or wire, the strength of the magnet, the number of turns or loops in the coil or the area of the coil.
(Physics only) Students should be able to recall the factors that affect the size of the induced potential difference/induced current.
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(Physics only) What are the principles of the generator effect?
the principals of the generator effect are: 1. A moving wire moves between a magnetic field line 2. A potential difference is induced across the ends of the wire 3. An induced current passes along the wire
(Physics only) Students should be able to apply the principles of the generator effect in a given context.
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(Physics only) How does the generator effect generate A.C in an alternator? What factors can affect the current in an alternator?
An alternator uses the generator effect as its slip rings are connected to the ends of the coil to allow the coil to spin without winding the wire around itself. The brushes are conducting contacts that touch the slip rings and complete the circuit. The size of the induced current can be increase by increasing the number of turns on the coil, using more powerful magnets and turning the coil faster.
(Physics only) The generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a dynamo to generate dc.
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(Physics only) How does the generator effect generate D.C in an dynamo?
A dynamo is used to generate a direct current by moving the coil in a magnetic field. As the coil turns it cuts the magnetic field lines. This induces a potential difference between the end of the coil. This causes an induced current to pass through the coil and through the circuit the coil is a part of. The split ring commentator rotates with the coil and maintains a complete circuit with the external circuit. Each half turn the sides of the coil connect to the opposite side of the circuit so the direction of the induced potential difference doesn't change.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the generator effect is used in an alternator to generate ac and in a dynamo to generate dc
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(Physics only) What would the graph showing potential difference generated in the coil against time look like?
The graph showing potential difference generated in the coil against time would show a transverse wave oscillating through the normal line.
(Physics only) should be able to draw/interpret graphs of potential difference generated in the coil against time.
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(Physics only) What do microphones convert into variations in current in electrical
(Physics only) Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical circuits.
(Physics only) Microphones use the generator effect to convert the pressure variations in sound waves into variations in current in electrical circuits.
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(Physics only) Explain how a moving-coil microphone works?
(Physics only) Sound waves make the diaphragm vibrate. The vibrations make the coil move back and forth, causing a varying current to flow as the coil moves over the permanent magnet.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how a moving-coil microphone works.
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(Physics only) How does the equation linking the pds and number of turns in the two coils of a transformer link to the to the currents and the power transfer involved. Relate these to the advantages of power transmission at high potential difference.
At the end of the power station there is a step up transformer which increases the voltage but decreases the current therefore less energy is lost by heat. Before the current reaches homes and industry a step down transformer steps up the current and steps down the voltage.
(Physics only) Students should be able to apply the equation linking the pds and number of turns in the two coils of a transformer to the currents and the power transfer involved, and relate these to the advantages of power transmission at high potential differences.
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(Physics only) What is the basic structure of a transformer?
(Physics only) A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on an iron core.
(Physics only) A basic transformer consists of a primary coil and a secondary coil wound on an iron core.
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(Physics only) Which metal is used for the core in transformers?
(Physics only) Iron is used [for a core] as it is easily magnetised.
(Physics only) Iron is used [for a core] as it is easily magnetised. Knowledge of laminations and eddy currents in the core is not required.
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(Physics only) The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer (Vp and Vs) depends upon the ratio of what?
The potential differences across primary and secondary coils of a transformer depend upon the ratio of number of turns on each primary and secondary coil (np and ns)
(Physics only) The ratio of the potential differences across the primary and secondary coils of a transformer Vp and Vs depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each coil, np and ns . EQUATION
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(Physics only) In a step-up transformer which has the greatest potential difference, primary (Vp) or secondary (Vs) coils?
In a step-up transformer Vs > Vp (Primary potential difference = Vp; Secondary potential difference = Vs)
(Physics only) In a step-up transformer Vs > Vp
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(Physics only) In a step-down transformer which has the greatest potential difference, primary (Vp) or secondary (Vs) coils?
In a step-down transformer Vp > Vs (Primary potential difference = Vp; Secondary potential difference = Vs)
(Physics only) In a step-down transformer Vs < Vp
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(Physics only) What would the relationship be between total power input and output in a transformer if it were 100% efficient?
If transformers were 100 % efficient, the electrical power output would BE EQUAL to the electrical power input.
(Physics only) If transformers were 100 % efficient, the electrical power output would equal the electrical power input.
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(Physics only) Vp x Ip = the ______ _______ (primary coil). power input Vs x Is = the _______ ______ (secondary coil)power output
Vp x Ip = the POWER INPUT(primary coil). Vs x Is = the POWER OUTPUT (secondary coil) (Ip = Current through primary coils Is = Current through secondary coils)
(Physics only) Vs ? Is = Vp ? Ip Where Vs ? Is is the power output (secondary coil) and Vp ? Ip is the power input (primary coil). power input and output, in watts, W
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(Physics only)Explain how the effect of an alternating current induces a current in another transformer.
An alternating current in a transformer creates a changing magnetic field. A changing magnetic field also induces a changing voltage in a coil. This is the basis of how a transformer works: The primary coil is connected to an AC supply An alternating current passes through a primary coil wrapped around a soft iron core The changing current produces a changing magnetic field This induces an alternating voltage in the secondary coil This induces an alternating current (AC) in the circuit connected to the secondary coil
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the effect of an alternating current in one coil in inducing a current in another is used in transformers
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(Physics only) How does the ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each?
The ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how the ratio of the potential differences across the two coils depends on the ratio of the number of turns on each
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(Physics only) What calculation liks power, current and voltage?
Power (W) = Current (A) x voltage (V)
(Physics only) Students should be able to calculate the current drawn from the input supply to provide a particular power output
0
(Physics only) What is contained within our solar system?
(Physics only) Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight planets and the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun.
(Physics only) Within our solar system there is one star, the Sun, plus the eight planets and the dwarf planets that orbit around the Sun.
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(Physics only) What are natural satellites?
(Physics only) Natural satellites are the moons that orbit other planets.
(Physics only) Natural satellites, the moons that orbit planets, are also part of the solar system.
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(Physics only) What is our solar system part of?
(Physics only) Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy.
(Physics only) Our solar system is a small part of the Milky Way galaxy.
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(Physics only) How are new elements formed?
(Physics only) In stars the nuclei of smaller elements fuse together to make larger, heavier elements.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how fusion processes lead to the formation of new elements.
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(Physics only) What is a star's life cycle determined by?
(Physics only) The life cycle is determined by the size of the star.
(Physics only) A star goes through a life cycle. The life cycle is determined by the size of the star.
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(Physics only) What was the sun formed from and how?
(Physics only) The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by gravitational attraction.
(Physics only) The Sun was formed from a cloud of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by gravitational attraction.
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(Physics only) How do the fusion reactions in a star begin?
(Physics only) At the beginning of a star's life cycle the dust and gas is drawn together by gravity to cause fusion reactions.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how, at the start of a star's life cycle, the dust and gas drawn together by gravity causes fusion reactions
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(Physics only) What do these fusion reactions lead to?
(Physics only) Fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the gravitational collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due to fusion energy.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that fusion reactions lead to an equilibrium between the gravitational collapse of a star and the expansion of a star due to fusion energy.
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(Physics only) How are all the naturally occurring elements formed?
(Physics only) Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring elements.
(Physics only) Fusion processes in stars produce all of the naturally occurring elements.
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(Physics only) Which elements are produced in a supernova?
(Physics only) Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova.
(Physics only) Elements heavier than iron are produced in a supernova.
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(Physics only) How are elements distributed around the universe?
(Physics only) The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the elements throughout the universe.
(Physics only) The explosion of a massive star (supernova) distributes the elements throughout the universe.
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(Physics only) What allows the planets and satellites to maintain their circular orbits?
(Physics only) Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both natural and artificial) to maintain their circular orbits.
(Physics only) Gravity provides the force that allows planets and satellites (both natural and artificial) to maintain their circular orbits.
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(Physics only) (HT only) What effect does gravity have on circular orbits?
(Physics only) (HT only) Gravity can lead to a change in velocity but unchanged speed.
(Physics only) (HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how for circular orbits, the force of gravity can lead to changing velocity but unchanged speed
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(Physics only) (HT only) What must happen to the radius of an orbit if the speed increases?
(Physics only) (HT only) If the speed increases then the radius of the orbit decreases.
(Physics only) (HT only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively how for a stable orbit, the radius must change if the speed changes.
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(Physics only) What happens to the red-shift of receding galaxies and why?
(Physics only) Astronomers have found that the further from us a star is, the more its light is red-shifted. This tells us that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and that the further away a galaxy is, the faster it's moving away.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain qualitatively the red-shift of light from galaxies that are receding
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(Physics only) What is red-shift?
(Physics only) Red-shift is the observed increase in a wavelength of light from most distant galaxies.
(Physics only) There is an observed increase in the wavelength of light from most distant galaxies. This effect is called red-shift.
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(Physics only) What makes red-shift increase?
(Physics only) The further away the galaxies, the faster they are moving and the bigger the observed increase in wavelength.
(Physics only) The further away the galaxies, the faster they are moving and the bigger the observed increase in wavelength.
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(Physics only) How does red-shift support the Big Bang theory?
(Physics only) The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the universe) is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.
(Physics only) The observed red-shift provides evidence that space itself (the universe) is expanding and supports the Big Bang theory.
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(Physics only) What does the Big Bang theory suggest?
(Physics only) The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot and dense.
(Physics only) The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe began from a very small region that was extremely hot and dense.
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(Physics only) What have scientists observed of distant galaxies since 1998?
(Physics only) Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that distant galaxies are receding ever faster.
(Physics only) Since 1998 onwards, observations of supernovae suggest that distant galaxies are receding ever faster.
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(Physics only) What evidence is there of an expanding universe?
(Physics only) The fact that the speed of a galaxy changes as it gets further away supports the idea that the universe is expanding.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that the change of each galaxy's speed with distance is evidence of an expanding universe
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(Physics only) How does Red-shift provide evidence for the Big Bang model?
(Physics only) Astronomers have found that the further from us a star is the more its light is red shifted. This tells us that distant galaxies are moving away from us, and that the further a galaxy is the faster it is moving away. This is evidence for a generally expanding universe. It suggests that everything is moving away from everything else.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how red-shift provides evidence for the Big Bang model
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(Physics only) What evidence is there for the Big Bang theory?
(Physics only) There are two key pieces of evidence for Big Bang theory. These are red shift and the Cosmic Microwave Background radiation. Red shift shows us that galaxies are all moving away from us and cosmic microwave radiation shows that there are microwaves coming from every direction in space. Big Bang theory says this is energy created at the beginning of the universe, just after the Big Bang, and that has been travelling through space ever since.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain how scientists are able to use observations to arrive at theories such as the Big Bang theory
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(Physics only) Do we know everything about the universe? If not give examples of things we don't yet understand.
(Physics only) No, there is still much about the universe that is not understood, for example dark mass and dark energy.
(Physics only) Students should be able to explain that there is still much about the universe that is not understood, for example dark mass and dark energy.
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Compare an animal and plant cells.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell wall; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & chloroplasts. Only plant cells have: cell membrane; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; chloroplasts & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes mitochondria .
Plant and animal cells both have: cell wall; cytoplasm; nucleus; chloroplasts & ribosomes. Only plant cells have: cell membrane; permanent vacuole and sometimes mitochondria.
the similarities and differences between plant and animal cell: - Plant and animal cells both have: cell membrane; cytoplasm; nucleus; mitochondria & ribosomes. - Only plant cells have: cell wall; permanent vacuole and sometimes chloroplasts.
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How are you able to tell the difference between an animal and plant cell?
Students to sort diagrams (or photos for higher ability) of animal and plant cells based on their characteristics. - Root hair cell - Red blood cell - Elodea cell - Ciliated cell
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Give 3 examples of specialised plant or animal cells. How are they different to other cells and how does this help the cells complete their specialist function?
That cells have special characteristics, different organelles and shape, in order to fulfill their function.
That cells have special characteristics, different organelles and shape, in order to fulfill their function.
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What is the function of a root hair cell and how is the cell specialised to do this?
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients. RHC have no chloroplasts as light does not get to them.
Root hair cells have a large surface area to absorb water and nutrients. RHC have no chloroplasts as light does not get to them.
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What adaptations do red blood cells have in order to efficiently carry oxygen around the body?
Red blood cells have a rounded shape to allow it to flow smoothly. Is red due to the iron compound used to carry oxygen. RBC have no nucleus and a biconcave cross section to increase oxygen capacity.
Red blood cells have a rounded shape to allow it to flow smoothly. Is red due to the iron compound used to carry oxygen. RBC have no nucleus and a biconcave cross section to increase oxygen capacity.
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What special adaptation do Elodea have? Why do they have this?
Elodea cell have lots of chloroplasts to capture light.
Elodea cell have lots of chloroplasts to capture light.
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Why do ciliated cells have hairs?
Ciliated cells have hairs on them to move substances around.
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What part of the plant is involved in sexual reproduction?
Flowers are the genitals of plants
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What is the male part of the flower called?
Flower structure - The Stamen is the male part of a flower. - The Stamen consists of an Anther and Filament. - The Anther contains pollen, the male gamete cell. -The Filament attaches the stamen to the anther. - The Carpel is the female part of a flower. - The Carpel consists of a Stigma, Style and Ovary. - The style is the stalk in the centre of the flower. - The Stigma is on the end of the style. - The Ovary contains the Ovule, the female gamete cell. - The flower also has Petals (to attract insects) and Sepals (green leaves which contain flower before budding).
Flower structure - The Stamen is the male part of a flower. - The Stamen consists of an Anther and Filament. - The Anther contains pollen, the male gamete cell. - The Carpel is the female part of a flower. - The Carpel consists of a Stigma, Style and Ovary. - The Stigma is on the end of the style. - The Ovary contains the Ovule, the female gamete cell. - The flower also has Petals and Sepals.
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How can an insect pollinator transfer pollen from one flower to another?
insect pollination: - Insects attracted to petals and nectar. - Insect enters flower and pollen is transferred from Anther to Insect. - Insect is attracted to another flower. - Pollen from Insect is transferred to Stigma. - Pollen cell grows a pollen tube down the Style to the Ovary.
insect pollination: - Insects attracted to petals and nectar. - Insect enters flower and pollen is transferred from Anther to Insect. - Insect is attracted to another flower. - Pollen from Insect is transferred to Stigma. - Pollen cell grows a pollen tube down the Style to the Ovary.
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What happens to cause fertilisation in a flower?
Fertilisation occurs when the Pollen nucleus fuses with the Ovule. The fertilised Ovule forms the seed. The Ovary forms the Fruit.
Fertilisation occurs when the Pollen nucleus fuses with the Ovule. The fertilised Ovule forms the seed. The Ovary forms the Fruit.
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What is the role of a pollen cell?
The function of Pollen cells are to transfer genetic material (DNA) from one plant to another.
The function of Pollen cells are to transfer genetic material (DNA) from one plant to another.
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How are pollen cells adapted - Give at least 2 ways.
Pollen cells are adapted to their function by: - being small (microscopic) - having a tough outer coating - can have spikes or hooks
Pollen cells are adapted to their function by: - being small (microscopic) - having a tough outer coating - can have spikes or hooks
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Why does pollen have a tough outer coating? Why do some pollens have spikes or hooks on them?
Pollen being small allows it to be transported easily by insects (and wind next lesson) Pollen having a tough outer coating allows the cell to survive in the environment away from the plant. Pollen have spikes or hooks makes it more likely to stick to insects.
Pollen being small allows it to be transported easily by insects (and wind next lesson) Pollen having a tough outer coating allows the cell to survive in the environment away from the plant. Pollen have spikes or hooks makes it more likely to stick to insects.
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What different methods can be used to transfer pollen?
Some plants use the Wind to pollinate other plants.
Some plants use the Wind to pollinate other plants.
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Why is it important for plants to spread seeds far?
The most successful plants are wide spread due to their dispersal mechanisms.
The most successful plants are wide spread due to their seed dispersal mechanisms.
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What are the different ways seeds can be dispersed?
Dispersal mechanisms - Wind - Animal eating - Animal fur - Water - Explosive
Dispersal mechanisms - Wind - Animal eating - Animal fur - Water - Explosive
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What does a food chain show?
the interdependence of organisms in an ecosystem, including food webs and insect pollinated crops
A food chain shows how energy passes from one organism to another.
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What do food chains start with?
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant.
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant.
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How do plants get energy?
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis.
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis.
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What is a consumer?
Organisms that eat other organisms are called consumers.
Organisms that eat other organisms are called consumers.
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What is the second level in a food chain called?
The first consumer in a food chain is called the primary consumer. The second the secondary consumer and the third the tertiary. The final consumer is called the top consumer.
The first consumer in a food chain is called the primary consumer. The second the secondary consumer and the third the tertiary. The final consumer is called the top consumer.
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What is an animal that hunts another animal called?
Animals that hunt other animals are called predators, they are unlikely to be primary consumers.
Animals that hunt other animals are called predators, they are unlikely to be primary consumers.
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How is a food web difference to a food chain?
Food webs are formed by combing the multiple food chains in an ecosystem.
Food webs are formed by combing the multiple food chains in an ecosystem.
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What is it called when changes in a population of one species affect the population of other species?
A change in the population of an organism in a food web will affect the other organisms in the food chain. This is known as interdependence.
A change in the population of an organism in a food web will affect the other organisms in the food chain. This is known as interdependence.
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How is a pyramid or number arranged?
A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms are consumed at each stage (trophic level) of a food web. Generally, there are more organisms consumed at earlier stages. This is because most of the energy consumed is used for movement or staying warm. Little is used to build body mass.
A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms are consumed at each stage (trophic level) of a food web. Generally, there are more organisms consumed at earlier stages. This is because most of the energy consumed is used for movement or staying warm. Little is used to build body mass.
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What is bioaccumulation and what levels of the food chain will it affect the most?
Organisms on low levels of the food web can ingest small amounts of toxic materials and survive. When multiple low level organisms are ingested by higher level organisms the toxic materials accumulate to levels that are dangerous. This is called bioaccumulation.
Organisms on low levels of the food web can ingest small amounts of toxic materials and survive. When multiple low level organisms are ingested by higher level organisms the toxic materials accumulate to levels that are dangerous. This is called bioaccumulation.
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Why are insect pollinators important to humans?
the importance of plant reproduction through insect pollination in human food security
75% of the food we eat relies on insect pollinated crops.
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If a field only grows the crop and no other plants, why might this be bad for insects?
In large areas growing single crops, there is no food for insects when the crop is not in flower.
In large areas growing single crops, there is no food for insects when the crop is not in flower.
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Why should we look after insect pollinators?
It is important to ensure the survival of pollinating insects to ensure human food security.
It is important to ensure the survival of pollinating insects to ensure human food security.
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What are the products of photosynthesis?
The products of photosynthesis are glucose (a sugar) and oxygen
Plants making carbohydrates in their leaves by photosynthesis
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Where are plants found in the food chain?
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant. (FROM 2B)
Food chains begin with a producer, which is normally a green plant. (FROM 2B)
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How do plants get their energy?
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. (FROM 2B)
Green plants get their energy from the sun through photosynthesis. (FROM 2B)
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What does 'photo' mean?
'Photo' is from the Greek for 'light'.
'Photo' is from the Greek for 'light'.
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What does 'synthesis' mean?
'Synthesis' is from the Greek for 'put together or combine'.
'Synthesis' is from the Greek for 'put together or combine'.
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What happens to particles in synthesis?
Synthesis is the bonding together of small particles to form bigger particles.
Synthesis is the bonding together of small particles to form bigger particles.
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What happens to the particles in decomposition?
Decomposition is the splitting of large particles in smaller particles.
Decomposition is the splitting of large particles in smaller particles.
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What types of cells does the most amount of photosynthesis happen?
Most photosynthesis takes place in palisade cells.
Most photosynthesis takes place in palisade cells.
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Where in a plant cell does photosynthesis take place?
Palisade cells are adapted for photosynthesis by having lots of chloroplasts. NB: Main thrust of lessons should be looking at cells.
Palisade cells are adapted for photosynthesis by having lots of chloroplasts. NB: Main thrust of lessons should be looking at cells.
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What is the word equation for photosynthesis?
The word summary for photosynthesis is: Carbon Dioxide plus Water becomes Glucose plus Oxygen using light energy.
The word summary for photosynthesis is: Carbon Dioxide plus Water becomes Glucose plus Oxygen using light energy.
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What are the reactants of photosynthesi
The reactants of photosynthesis are: Carbon Dioxide and Water
The reactants of photosynthesis are: Carbon Dioxide and Water
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Where does the plant get carbon dioxide from?
Carbon Dioxide is absorbed from the air.
Carbon Dioxide is absorbed from the air.
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Where does water come from for the plant and where does it enter the plant?
Water is absorbed from the ground through the roots.
Water is absorbed from the ground through the roots.
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How does carbon dioxide get absorbed into the plant?
Carbon dioxide is absorbed through the leaves.
Carbon dioxide is absorbed through the leaves.
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What chemicals are the products of photosynthesis?
The products of photosynthesis are: Glucose and Oxygen
The products of photosynthesis are: Glucose and Oxygen
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What happens to the glucose in a plant?
Glucose is used or stored in the plant.
Glucose is used or stored in the plant.
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Where does the oxygen made in a plant leave from?
Oxygen is released through the leaves into the air.
Oxygen is released through the leaves into the air.
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What is glucose converted into when stored in a plant?
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
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What is the word equation for aerobic respiration?
the reactants in, and products of, photosynthesis, and a word summary for photosynthesis
The word summary for respiration is: Glucose plus Oxygen becomes Carbon Dioxide plus Water releasing energy.
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What is the symbol equation for photosynthesis?
The symbol equation for photosynthesis is: CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O -> C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> With a wavy arrow showing the light energy.
The symbol equation for photosynthesis is: CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O -> C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> With a wavy arrow showing the light energy.
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What happens to atoms in chemical reactions?
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms.
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms.
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What happens to the numbers of each atom in a chemical reaction?
No particles are created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Therefore the equation needs to be balanced.
DESIRABLE: No particles are created or destroyed in a chemical reaction. Therefore the equation needs to be balanced.
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What makes photosynthesis an endothermic reaction?
Photosynthesis is an endothermic chemical reactions because it takes energy to build bigger molecules.
Photosynthesis is an endothermic chemical reactions because it takes energy to build bigger molecules.
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What is the symbol equation for respiration?
The symbol equation for respiration is: C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> -> CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O With a wavy arrow showing the energy leaving the reaction.
The symbol equation for respiration is: C<SUB>6</SUB>H<SUB>12</SUB>O<SUB>6</SUB> -> CO<SUB>2</SUB> plus H<SUB>2</SUB>O With a wavy arrow showing the energy leaving the reaction.
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What makes respiration an exothermic reaction?
Respiration is an exothermic chemical reactions because it releases energy when bigger molecules are split.
Respiration is an exothermic chemical reactions because it releases energy when bigger molecules are split.
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How are leaves shaped to help photosynthesis?
Leaves are flat and so have a large surface area to collect the sunlight.
Leaves are flat and so have a large surface area to collect the sunlight.
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How are palisade cells adapted to perform photosynthesis?
The palisade cells, found towards the top of the leaves, have lots of chloroplast which perform photosynthesis.
The palisade cells, found towards the top of the leaves, have lots of chloroplast which perform photosynthesis.
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What is glucose converted into when stored in a plant?
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
Glucose is converted into starch for storage.
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What is used to test for starch and what is the colour change?
The test for starch is it reacts with iodine, turning black.
The test for starch is it reacts with iodine, turning black.
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What is the definition for a 'Balanced Diet'?
A 'Balanced Diet' is a diet in which neither too much energy is consumed, nor too much of any one type of food group.
A 'Balanced Diet' is a diet in which neither too much energy is consumed, nor too much of any one type of food group.
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Which food type(s) are required in the greatest proportion
Fruit and vegetables and Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta
A balanced diet consists of these proportions of food types: Fruit and vegetables: 33% Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta: 33% Milk and other dairy products : 15% Meat, fish, egg, beans: 12% Foods and drinks high in energy: 7%
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What is the definition of a food group?
A food group is what substances are in the food.
A food group is what substances are in the food.
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What is the definition of a food type?
A food type is the name of the food.
A food type is the name of the food.
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Which food type provides vitamins, minerals and fibre?
Fruit and vegetables give Vitamins and minerals and Fibre
Fruit and vegetables give Vitamins and minerals and Fibre
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Which 4 types of food provide slow release energy (starch)?
Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta gives starch (Carbohydrates) for slow energy.
Bread, rice, potatoes and pasta gives Starch (Carbohydrates)
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Which food type provides vitamins, minerals and lipids?
Milk and milk products provides vitamins, minerals and lipids.
Milk and milk products gives Protein; Lipids; Vitamins and Minerals
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What food group do meat, fish, eggs and beans provide?
Meat, fish, eggs and beans provide protein and lipids.
Meat, fish, egg, beans gives Protein; Lipids
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What type of carbohydrate does food high in energy contain?
Foods and drinks high in energy tend to contain Sugars (Carbohydrates)
Foods and drinks high in energy tend to conatain lots of sugars (Carbohydrates) and lipids.
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What type of energy is stored in food?
Energy in food is chemical energy.
Energy in food is chemical energy.
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What is food energy measured in (in catering)?
Energy in food is measured in catering calories (Kilocalories)
Energy in food is measured in catering calories (Kilocalories)
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What is food energy measured in (in science)?
Energy in food is measured in Kilojoules in science.
Energy in food is measured in Kilojoules in science.
0
How is a sperm cell structure linked to is function?
Sperm Cells have a pointed head which is streamlined for swimming and entering egg. The also have lots of mitrochondria to give energy needed to swim.
Sperm Cells have a pointed head to give lots of energy. The also have lots of mitrochondria to enter the egg.
Sperm Cells have a large food store for initial growth.
Sperm Cells have a large food store to give energy for swimming.
gametes: cell structure linked to function Sperm Cells: - Tail: to be able to swim. - Pointed head: streamlined for swimming and entering egg. - Lots of mitrochondria: energy needed to swim, mitrochondria need to release energy through respiration.
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How is a egg cell structure linked to is function?
Egg Cells have a large food store for initial growth.
Egg Cells have a pointed head which is streamlined for swimming and entering egg. The also have lots of mitrochondria to give energy needed to swim.
Egg Cells have a large food store to give energy for swimming.
Egg Cells have a tail for swimming.
gametes: cell structure linked to function Egg Cells: - Large food store for initial growth
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What happens during fertilisation?
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm's nucleus fuses with eggs nucleus.
Fertilisation occurs when the Zygote starts dividing.
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm enters the egg.
Fertilisation occurs when the ball of cells implants in the Uterus lining.
Fertilisation occurs when the sperm's nucleus fuses with eggs nucleus. This forms a zygote.
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How does a gamete compare from a 'normal cell'?
Gametes only contain half the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes only contain twice the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes have the same amount of DNA as a 'normal' cell.
Gametes are twice the size of a 'normal' cell.
Gametes only contain half the DNA of a 'normal' cell.
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Where must fertilisation occur for a pregnancy to be possible?
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Oviduct tubes.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Vagina.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Ovary.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the Uterus.
To result in a pregnancy fertilisation must occur in the oviduct tubes.
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How can a change in the environment cause evolution and even possibly extinction?
changes in the environment which may leave individuals within a species, and some entire species, less well adapted to compete successfully and reproduce, which in turn may lead to extinction
changes in the environment which may leave individuals within a species, and some entire species, less well adapted to compete successfully and reproduce, which in turn may lead to extinction
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Describe what particles do in a fluid.
Particles in a fluid are always moving.
Particles in a fluid are always moving.
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What is diffusion?
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
Diffusion is the movement of a substance from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
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What is concentration?
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
Concentration is the number of a particular type of particle in a volume of space.
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How do the random movement of particles result in the movement from a higher concentration to a lower concentration?
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
Half of a large number is more than half of a smaller number. So more particles will travel from a larger number of particles (high concentration), than are replaced by the smaller number moving form the smaller number of particles (lower concentration).
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Under what conditions does diffusion happen faster?
Diffusion happens fastest when: - there is a large surface area - there is a short distance between areas of differing concentration. - at higher temperatures.
Diffusion happens fastest when: - there is a large surface area - there is a large difference in concentration - there is a short distance between areas of differing concentration. - at higher temperatures.
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Why does glucose diffuse into muscle cells from the blood?
Glucose diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of glucose particles in the blood than the cell.
Glucose diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of glucose particles in the blood than the cell.
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Why does oxygen diffuse into muscle cells from the blood?
Oxygen diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
Oxygen diffuses into a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
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Why does carbon dioxide diffuse out of muscle cells into the blood?
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of Carbon dioxide particles in the cell than the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of Carbon dioxide particles in the cell than the blood.
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Why does water diffuse out of muscle cells into the blood?
Water diffuses out a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
Water diffuses out a muscle cell, because there is a higher concentration of oxygen particles in the blood than the cell.
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How can diffusion occur in and out of cells.
Diffusion occurs through the cell membrane, because there are small gaps in the membrane.
Diffusion occurs through the cell membrane, because there are small gaps in the me.
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What does partially-permeable mean?
Partially-permeable allows certain particles through but not others.permeable..
Partially-permeable allows certain particles through but not others.
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Why is the cell membrane referred to as partially-permeable?
The small gaps allow smaller molecules through but not larger ones. This means the membrane is partially-
These small gaps allow smaller molecules through but not larger ones. This means the membrane is partially-permeable
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What is density?
Density is the how heavy a material is for a given size/the ratio of mass to volume.
Lower: Density is the how heavy a material is for a given size. Higher: Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
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How can we use the a eureka can to measure the volume of an object?
Fill the eureka can with water and then place the object of interest into it. Measure the volume of water that is displaced.
Measure the mass and volume of material sample blocks / objects using eureka cans. Calculate density. Conversion of units and the use of unit prefixes.
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How does the density change between solid, liquid and gas?
- Solids are the most dense; - Gases are the least dense; - With liquids between.
- Gases are the most dense; - Solids are the least dense; - With liquids between.
- Solids are the most dense; - Liquids are the least dense; - With gases between.
- Gases are the most dense; - Liquids are the least dense; - With solids between.
For the same material: - Solids are the most dense; - Gases are the least dense; - With liquids between.
1
What are there more of, chemicals or elements?
There are more chemicals than elements.
There are millions of chemicals in the world.
0
What experiments did John Dalton carry out?
John Dalton did experiments to break down chemicals until they could not be split any further.
During the 1800s, John Dalton did experiments to break down chemicals until they could not be split any further.
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What are chemicals that can not be split into other chemicals called?
Chemicals that do not split into other chemicals are known as elements.
Dalton found some chemicals do not split into other chemicals, these are known as elements.
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What is an element made of?
An element is made of only one type of particle.
Elements are made of only one type of particle.
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What determines the element?
The type of particle determines the element. Each element has a unique number of protons.
The type of particle determines the element (chemical).
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What are chemicals called that are made of more than one element chemically bonded together?
Chemicals made of more than element chemically bonded are known as compounds.
Dalton found some chemical do split into other chemicals, these are known as compounds.
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What is a compound made up of?
Compounds are made up of more than one type of particle.
Compounds are made up of more than one type of particles.
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What did Dalton find out when he split compounds?
Dalton found compounds always split into the same proportions.
Dalton found compounds always split into the same proportions.
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How many elements are there and where can we find this list?
There are only around 100 types of atoms (elements) to make up the millions of chemicals.
There are only around 100 types of atoms (elements) to make up the millions of chemicals.
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What is an atom?
Atom is the smallest part of an element.
Atoms are the smallest part of a chemical, and can not be split chemically.
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What is a molecule?
Molecules are atoms that are bonded together.
Groups of bonded atoms are called Molecules.
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What is an element?
A chemical made up of only one type of atom.
Elements are made up of only one type of atom.
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What is a compound?
Compounds are made up of more than one type of atom, in a fixed combination.
Compounds are made up of more than one type of atom, in a fixed combination.
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What is a mixture?
A Mixture is a collection of different particles in the same place.
A Mixture is a collection of different particles in the same place.
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How do we represent chemicals universally?
chemical symbols and formulae for elements and compounds
Each element has a chemical symbol.
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What rules apply to all chemical symbols?
Some chemical symbols consist of two letters (as there are more than 26 elements). Chemical symbols start with a capital letter.
Some chemical symbols consist of two letters (as there are more than 26 elements). Chemical symbols start with a capital letter.
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What does the chemical formulae of a compound show?
Compounds have chemical formulae which show the elements in the compound.
Compounds have chemical formulae which show the elements in the compound.
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How can you tell a compound from the formula of it?
Compounds have chemical formulae with more than one capital letter in.
Compounds have chemical formulae with more than one capital letter in.
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How can you tell an element from the formula of it?
Elements have chemical formulae with only one capital letter in.
Elements have chemical formulae with only one capital letter in.
0
How can we identify the number of elements in a compound?
We identify the number of elements in a compound by counting the number capital letters in the formulae.
Students can identify the number of elements in a compound from its formulae.
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Identify the number of element and atoms in the following formulae: CO Co NaOH MgO MgSO4 CaCO3 CaCl What are the elements in the above formulae?
CO 2 atoms, 2 elements. NaOH 4 atoms, 3 elements. MgO 2 atoms, 2 elements. MgSO4 6 atoms, 3 elements. CaCO3 5 atoms, 3 elements. CaCl 2 atoms, two elements. CO2 carbon and oxygen. NaOH sodium, oxygen and hydrogen. MgO magnesium and oxygen. MgSO4 magnesium, sulfur and oxygen. CaCO3 calcium, carbon and oxygen. CaCl calcium and chlorine.
Students can identify the number of atoms in a compound from its formulae.
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How can you represent a mixture in writing?
Mixture formulae have a plus sign in.
Mixture 'formulae' have a plus sign in.
0
What is the conservation of mass?
conservation of mass changes of state and chemical reactions
There is no change of mass during a change of state as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
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What happens to the mass of particles in a chemical reaction?
There is no change of mass during chemical reactions as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
There is no change of mass during chemical reactions as no particles are destroyed. This is known as the conservation of mass.
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What is a chemical reaction?
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
0
What is Brownian motion?
Brownian motion in gases is the proof of particles too small to see. The random motion of the large particle can only be explained by smaller particles hitting it.
Brownian motion in gases is the proof of particles too small to see. The random motion of the large particle can only be explained by smaller particles hitting it.
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How can we separate salt from sand?
simple techniques for separating mixtures: filtration, evaporation, distillation and chromatography
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: filtration, evaporation.
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What is filtration?
Filtration separates by size of particle, normally solid and liquid.
Filtration separates by size of particle, normally solid and liquid.
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What is a residue?
The solid left behind in the filter is called the residue.
The solid left behind in the filter is called the residue.
0
What is a filtrate?
The liquid that has passed through the filter is called the filtrate.
The liquid that has passed through the filter is called the filtrate.
0
What allows us to separate substances through evaporation?
Evaporation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the higher point.
Evaporation separates by differences in boiling point, collecting the substance with the higher point.
0
What is chromatography?
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: chromotography.
To be able to describe simple techniques for separating mixtures: chromotography.
0
Why would we use chromatography to identify a type of sweet?
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds.
Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures of coloured compounds.
0
What happens to atoms in chemical reactions
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
Chemical reactions result from the rearrangement of atoms
0
What 4 things tell us a chemical reaction has occurred?
Learn the signs of chemical reactions: 1. Change of color 2. Formation of gas 3. Formation of precipitate 4. Change of temperature (energy released)
Learn the signs of chemical reactions: 1. Change of colour 2. Formation of gas 3. Formation of precipitate 4. Change of temperature (energy released)
0
How do we know that there is conservation of mass in a chemical reaction?
There is a 'Conservation of mass' during chemical reactions as atoms are rearranged not destroyed.
There is a 'Conservation of mass' during chemical reactions as atoms are rearranged not destroyed.
0
What is the name of a reaction between an acid and an alkali?
A neutralisation reaction.
defining acids and alkalis in terms of neutralisation reactions
0
What do we use the pH scale for?
The pH scale is used for measuring acidity/alkalinity; and indicators
the pH scale for measuring acidity/alkalinity; and indicators
0
What 3 forms of evidence did Alfred Wegener base his theory of crustal movement on?
Alfred Wegener theory of crustal movement (continental drift) based on: - Matched coastlines of Africa and S.America, - Matched rock formations, - Common fossils.
Alfred Wegener observed - Matched coastlines of Africa and S.America, - Matched rock formations, - Common fossils.
0
What was Alfred Wegener's explanation for the forms of evidence?
This could be explained if the continents drifted apart.
This could be explained if the continents drifted apart.
0
Why was Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift not generally accepted?
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he couldn't explain how it could happen.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he had no evidence.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because he had little evidence.
Alfred Wegener's theory of continental drift was not generally accepted for many years because there is lots of evidence against it.
Alfred Wegener theory of crustal movement (continental drift) was not generally accepted for many years because he couldn't explain how it could happen. We now believe...
0
What moves the tectonic plates?
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents within the Earth’s mantle. The plates to move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents within the Earth’s mantle. The plates move at relative speeds of a few metres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by ocean currents. The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The tectonic plates are moved by convection currents in the atmosphere. The plates move at relative speeds of a few metres per year.
Convection currents within the Earth's mantle cause the plates.
0
Where does the energy come from to cause the movement of the tectonic plates?
The heat energy from natural radioactive processes in the core causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural radioactive processes in the mantle causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural chemical processes in the core causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy from natural chemical processes in the mantle causes the tectonic plates to move.
The heat energy drives convection currents in the mantle, through the changing density (particle movement) of the heated mantle.
0
What creates the heat in the core?
The heat in the core is released by natural radioactive processes.
The heat in the core is released by natural radioactive processes.
0
What is the energy transform occurring in the core?
Nuclear to Heat
Gravitational to Heat
Chemical to Heat
Elastic to Heat
Nuclear energy is transformed into heat energy.
0
How fast do the plates move on average?
The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
The plates move at relative speeds of a few centimetres per year.
0
What do the sudden movements of the tectonic plates cause?
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause both earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes only.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause volcanic eruptions only.
The sudden movements of tectonic plates can cause earthquakes and tidal waves.
The movements can be sudden and disastrous. Earthquakes and / or volcanic eruptions occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates.
0
How does the reactivity change as you go down Group one?
The reactivity of elements increases as group one is descended in the periodic table.
The reactivity of elements increases as group one is descended in the periodic table.
0
How does the reactivity of group 7 elements change as you ascend the group?
The reactivity of elements increases as group seven is ascended in the periodic table.
The reactivity of elements increases as group seven is ascended in the periodic table.
0
How reactive are group zero elements?
Group zero do not react.
Group zero do not react.
0
How does the placement of elements on the periodic table affect its properties?
The closer elements are to each other on the periodic table, the more likely they are to react in a similar way.
The closer elements are to each other on the periodic table, the more likely they are to react in a similar way.
0
Draw a labelled diagram to show how to collect gas over water.
- Up turned measuring cylinder / test tube - In tub of water - Delivery tube from reaction to under measuring cylinder - Reaction in a conical flask.
Gas can be collected over water using a delivery tube.
0
What is a better method to measure the amount of gas produced by a reaction?
A better method to measure the volume of gas produced by a reaction is to use a gas syringe.
Gas can be collected using a gas syringe. This is an improved method to measure the volume of gas.
0
What is weathering?
Weathering is breaking up of rock where it stands.
Weathering is breaking up of rock where it stands.
0
Over time, what happens to rocks as they are weathered?
Rocks are broken down into increasing smaller particles
Rocks are broken down into increasing smaller particles: Gravel; Sand; Silt; Clay
0
What is chemical weathering?
Chemical weathering is the weathering of rocks caused by chemicals. For example, rainwater is naturally slightly acidic because carbon dioxide from the air dissolves in it. Minerals in rocks may react with the rainwater, causing the rock to be weathered.
Weathering can be chemical weathering, in which rocks are broken down when the particles that make them up are changed.
0
What is physical weathering?
Physical weathering of rocks occurs when they are broken down, but the particles that make them up are not chemically changed.
Weathering can be physical weathering, in which rocks are broken down when the particles that make them up are not changed. But the forces between the particles are overcome to separate them into small pieces of rock.
0
How are sedimentary rocks formed?
Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (little pieces of weathered rock) is laid down in layers under water and then compressed by layers above. The water between the sediment is squeezed out and the sediment bonds together.
Sedimentary rocks are formed when sediment (little pieces of weathered rock) is laid down in layers under water and then compressed by layers above. The water between the sediment is squeezed out and the sediment bonds together.
0
What may occur when organisms fall into the sediment of a forming rock?
If organisms fall into the sediment then the rock can take the shape of the organism. These formations are fossils.
If organisms fall into the sediment then the rock can take the shape of the organism. These formations are fossils.
0
What causes the formation of a metamorphic rock?
Metamorphic rocks are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are heated and under great pressure.
Metamorphic rocks are formed when either igneous or sedimentary rocks are heated under great pressure.
0
What is momentum? Pick the most correct answer.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving with the same speed and direction.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to stay not moving.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving as at the same speed only.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving in the same direction only.
Momentum is the tendency for an object to keep moving as it was.
1
How can we change momentum?
It takes unbalanced forces to change the momentum of an object.
It takes an acceleration to change the momentum of an object.
It takes an inertia to change the momentum of an object.
It takes a balanced forces to change the momentum of an object.
It takes a force to change the momentum of an object.
1
Why do we need unbalanced forces?
Unbalanced forces being needed to cause objects to: - stop or start moving, - change their speed, - direction of motion These are all forms of acceleration (qualitative only).
Unbalanced forces are needed to cause objects to: - stop or start moving, - change their speed, - direction of motion These are all forms of acceleration (qualitative only).
0
What is acceleration dependent on?
The acceleration is in the direction of resultant force and the speed of the change is dependent on the size of the force.
The acceleration is in the direction of resultant force and the speed of the change is dependent on the size of the force.
0
Why do we need energy?
It takes energy to do anything. Think of an object that does something, describe the energy it is showing.
It takes energy to do anything.
0
What are the 8 forms of energy?
The 8 simple forms of energy: Light Sound Chemical Kinetic (Movement) Electrical Gravitational Elastic Thermal (Heat) (Nuclear) (Magnetic)
The 8 simple forms of energy: Light Sound Chemical potential Kinetic (Movement) Electrical Gravitational potential Elastic potential Thermal (Heat) (Nuclear) (Magnetic)
0
What is the difference between a store of energy and a flow of energy?
These can be categorised into stores and flows of energy. (Tree Map) Stores of energy can be left and returned to and the energy still be there. Flows of energy travel from one place to another.
These can be categorised into stores and flows of energy. Stores of energy can be left and returned to and the energy still be there. Flows of energy travel from one place to another.
0
What are the stores of energy? What are the flows of energy?
The Stores of energy: - Gravitational potential - Elastic potential - Chemical potential - (Nuclear potential) - Kinetic - Thermal - Magnetic The Flows of energy are - Light - Sound - Electrical - Heating (These are all waves)
The Stores of energy: - Gravitational potential - Elastic potential - Chemical potential - (Nuclear potential) The Flows of energy are - Light - Sound - Kinetic (Movement) - Electrical - Thermal (Heat) - movement of particles
0
How is energy transferred? Name 4 examples.
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
Energy can be transferred from place to place.
0
Does energy always stay in the same form? Explain your answer.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Usually into more than one form.
Energy can be transformed from one form to another. Usually into more than one form.
0
What is meant by 'conservation of energy'?
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed or transferred from place to place.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transformed or transferred from place to place.
0
Why do we use energy transfer diagrams? Draw an energy transfer diagram for the energy transfers in a fan heater.
Energy transfer diagrams are used to transfers (and transforms) of energy. Energy transfer diagrams: - Stores of energy are written in boxes. - Flows of energy are written on arrows. - Places / objects are written at the end of arrows. - The final arrows need to point word 'surroundings'
Energy transfer diagrams are used to transfers (and transforms) of energy. Energy transfer diagrams: - Stores of energy are written in boxes. - Flows of energy are written on arrows. - Places / objects are written at the end of arrows. - The final arrows need to point word 'surroundings'
0
Which direction(s) does energy flow?
Energy flows from high energy (the store) to areas of low energy (the surroundings).
Energy flows from high energy (the store) to areas of low energy (the surroundings).
0
How is energy dispersed?
When energy is transferred it is always dispersed until it is evenly distributed in all places.
When energy is transferred it is always dispersed until it is evenly distributed in all places.
0
How does anything happen in terms of energy?
We harness the flow of energy from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. Analogy: water wheel
We can harness this flow to do something. Analogy: water wheel
0
What sorts of processes involve energy transfers? Give 3 examples.
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
Processes that involve energy transfer: - changing motion, - dropping an object, - completing an electrical circuit, - stretching a spring, - metabolism of food, - burning fuels
0
What is meant by a more efficient device?
Some energy is useful and some is not useful, more efficient devices have more useful energy
Some energy is useful and some is not useful, more efficient devices have more useful energy
0
What do we measure the amount of energy transferred in?
Amount of energy transferred can be measured in Joules.
Amount of energy transferred can be measured in Joules.
0
Energy Transfer Joule Fuel
REVIEW of 2P.1
Review of 2P.1
0
Why do hot objects have more energy than cooler ones? How is this energy transferred?
heating and thermal equilibrium: temperature difference between 2 objects leading to energy transfer from the hotter to the cooler one, through - contact (conduction) or - radiation; such transfers tending to reduce the temperature difference;
Hot objects have more heat energy than cooler ones.
0
In which direction does heat energy flow?
Heat energy flows from hot objects to cooler ones.
Heat energy flows from hot objects to cooler ones.
0
When does heat energy stop flowing?
Heat energy stops flowing when objects are the same temperature.
Heat energy stops flowing when objects are the same temperature.
0
What do we call energy transfer through contact?
Heat energy can transfer through contact known as conduction.
Heat energy can transfer through contact known as conduction.
0
When does conduction occur?
Conduction occurs when fast moving (hot) particles collide with slower (cooler) particles.
Conduction occurs when fast moving (hot) particles collide with slower (cooler) particles.
0
Why does energy transfer in conduction?
Energy is passed on as the fast moving particles slow down as the slower particles speed up.
Energy is passed on as the fast moving particles slow down as the slower particles speed up.
0
How, other than conduction and convection, can heat energy transfer?
Heat energy can transfer through radiation.
Heat energy can transfer through radiation.
0
What is radiation described as?
Radiation is heat energy in the form of light.
Radiation is heat energy in the form of light.
0
What is convection? What substances does it occur in?
Convection is the (mass) movement of particles with heat energy. It only occurs in fluids.
Convection is the (mass) movement of particles with heat energy.
0
To what point do objects cool down to?
Hot objects always cool down until they reach the same temperature as their surroundings.
Hot objects always cool down until they reach the same temperature as their surroundings.
0
How do insulators work?
Insulators reduce the speed (rate of) energy transfer.
Insulators reduce the speed (rate of) energy transfer.
0
What is a better insulator - air or plastic?
A gas is a better insulator than a solid.
A gas is a better insulator than a solid.
0
Why is air a better insulator than plastic?
A gas is a better insulator than a solid because gas particles are further apart than in a solid. Therefore the collision of particles are less frequent.
A gas is a better insulator than a solid because gas particles are further apart than in a solid. Therefore the collision of particles are less frequent.
0
What are the best insulators?
Vacuums are the best insulators.
Vacuums are the best insulators.
0
Why are vacuums the best insulators?
Vacuums are the best insulators because there are no particles to collide in a vacuum.
Vacuums are the best insulators because there are no particles to collide in a vacuum.
0
Why do humans wear clothes to keep warm?
Layers of clothes or fur, trap air so that the particles can not convect away, while the air still reduces conduction by reducing collisions.
Layers of clothes or fur, trap air so that the particles can not convect away, while the air still reduces conduction by reducing collisions.
0
How can you plan a practical to investigate the factors that affect a trolley's speed?
Aim: The height of the ramp affects the average speed of the car.
PLANNING: - Aim: The height of the ramp affects the average speed of the car. - Hypothesis: That as the height of the ramp is increased the average speed of the car will increase.
0
What type of wave is a water wave?
Transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave.
Mechanical wave.
Electromagnetic wave.
Waves on water as undulations which travel through water with transverse motion as the wave moves horizontally but the water moves up and down.
0
What is reflection?
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave changing direction.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be reflected. This is when waves bounce off an object.
0
What is refraction?
A wave changing direction.
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be refracted. This is when waves change direction.
0
What is diffraction?
A wave spreading out through a gap.
A wave changing direction.
A wave bouncing off an object.
A wave splits into components.
Water waves can be diffracted. This is when waves spread out through a gap.
0
What is wave superposition?
When waves add together creating bigger peaks or smaller peaks.
When waves add together creating bigger peaks.
When waves add together creating smaller peaks.
When waves cancel each other out.
Water waves can add or cancel - superposition: When peaks meet you get bigger peaks. When a peak meets a trough then they cancel out.
0
What is the role of a machine in terms of forces?
A machines transmits a force from one place or object to another.
A machines transmits a force from one place or object to another.
0
What is the advantage and disadvantage of a simple machine?
Simple machines give bigger force but at the expense of smaller movement (and vice versa)
Simple machines give bigger force but at the expense of smaller movement (and vice versa)
0
Give 3 examples of simple machines.
Simple machines include: - Ramps - Levers - Pulleys - Wedge - Screw
Simple machines include: - Ramps - Levers - Pulleys - Wedge - Screw
0
What is work done? What is work done also known as? What unit do we use for work done?
The product of force and displacement is work done. Work done is also known as energy transferred. The unit of work done is therefore Joules.
The product of force and displacement is work done. Work done is also known as energy transferred. The unit of work done is therefore Joules.
0
What is the relationship between energy transferred in and work done?
The 'energy transferred in' is equal to the work done.
The 'energy transferred in' is equal to the work done.
0
What is a magnetic field?
The area around a magnet in which a magnetic object experiences a force is called a magnetic field.
The area around a magnet in which a magnetic object experiences a force is called a magnetic field.
0
What does the shape of a magnetic field depend on?
magnetic fields by plotting with compass, representation by field lines
The magnetic field has a shape based on the shape of the magnet and the magnetic objects abound it.
0
How do we represent magnetic fields in drawings?
Magnetic fields are represented by field lines.
Magnetic fields are represented by field lines.
0
Where are the magnetic fields usually the strongest?
The magnetic field is strongest where magnetic field lines are closest together (normally the poles).
The magnetic field is strongest where magnetic field lines are closest together (normally the poles).
0
How can we plot magnetic field lines?
Magnetic field lines can be plotted with a compass.
Magnetic field lines can be plotted with a compass.
0
Which direction do magnetic field lines flow?
Magnetic field lines flow from North to South poles outside a magnet.
Magnetic field lines flow from North to South poles outside a magnet.
0
How do magnetic materials affect the location of magnetic field lines?
Magnetism flows more easily through a magnetic material and so magnetic materials change the location of magnetic field lines.
Magnetism flows more easily through a magnetic material and so magnetic materials change the location of magnetic field lines.
0
What three things can happen to a wave when it encounters a material?
When a wave encounters a material it is either: reflected, absorbed or transmitted.
When a wave encounters a material it is either: reflected; absorbed or; transmitted
0
How do light waves travel?
Light (waves) travels in straight lines. We use rays to show this.
Light (waves) travels in straight lines. We use rays to show this.
0
What is the law of reflection off a plane surface?
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence.
0
What is the symbol of a mirror for ray diagrams?
The symbol for a mirror in ray diagrams is a straight light with perpendicular lines on the back side.
Use of ray model to explain imaging in mirrors
0
What is it called when a wave hits a flat, shiny surface and bounces back?
When a wave hits an object like a mirror, and bounces back it is called specular reflection.
When a wave is reflected from an object like a mirror, it is called specular reflection.
0
How does specular reflection allow an image to be formed?
In specular reflection rays are reflected at a consistent angle, allowing an image to be formed.
In specular reflection rays are reflected at a consistent angle, allowing an image to be formed.
0
When does diffuse scattering occur?
Diffuse scattering occurs when rays are reflected from a surface in a variety of angles.
Diffuse scattering occurs when rays are reflected from a surface in a variety of angles.
0
Why does a red object look red in white light?
A red object only reflects red light back to the observer. It absorbs all other colours.
Differential colour effects in absorption and diffuse reflection
0
What are the rules for representing circuits in diagram form?
Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams in which: - Wires are drawn as straight lines - With component symbols - Right angle corners.
Circuits are represented by circuit diagrams in which: - Wires are drawn as straight lines - With component symbols - Right angle corners.
0
Which components symbols are important to know?
Component symbols to know - Cell - Battery - Wire - Bulb - Switch - Voltmeter - Ammeter
Component symbols to know - Cell - Battery - Wire - Bulb - Switch - Voltmeter - Ammeter
0
How are series circuits described?
Series circuits consist of only one branch with component placed one after another.
Series circuits consist of only one branch with component placed one after another.
0
How are parallel circuits described?
Parallel circuits consist of more than one branch.
Parallel circuits consist of more than one branch.
0
What is a hazard?
A hazard is the thing that will cause you harm.
A hazard is how you may be harmed.
A hazard is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A hazard is what you do if you are harmed.
A hazard is the thing that will cause you harm.
1
What is a risk?
A risk is how you may be harmed.
A risk is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A risk is the thing that will cause you harm.
A risk is what you do if you are harmed.
A risk is how you may be harmed.
1
What is a control measure?
A control measure is what you do to stop yourself from being harmed.
A control measure is the thing that will cause you harm.
A control measure is how you may be harmed.
A control measure is what you do if you are harmed.
A control measure is what you keep the same to ensure a fair test.
1
Mod
Number of Questions
0S
10
1B
10
1C
10
1P
10
BI
5
B1
B1.1
Cell Structure
B1.2
Cell Division and transport
B1.3
Organisation
B1.4
Plant tissues, organs and Bioenergetics
B1.5
Infection and response
C1
C1.1
Atomic Structure
C1.2
The Periodic Table
C1.3
Bonding and structure of substances
C1.4
Properties of substances
C1.5
Use of amount of substance in relation to volumes of gases
C1.6
Test Title
P1
P1.1
Energy changes in a system, and ways energy is stored before and after changes
P1.2
Electricity
P1.3
Series and parallel circuits
P1.4
Particle model of matter
P1.5
Radiation and Atoms
B2
B2.1
Homeostasis and response
B2.2
Hormones
B2.3
B2.3 - Genetic Inheritance
B2.4
B2.4 - Variation and evolution
B2.5
B2.5
B2.6
Human Impact on Biodiversity and the Environment
C2
C2.1
Rates of reaction
C2.2
Crude Oil, Hydrocarbons and Cracking
C2.3
Analytical chemistry
C2.4
Evolution of the atmosphere
C2.5
Sustainable development
C2.6
Synthetic and Natural Polymers (Separates only)
P2
P2.1
Forces and Energy
P2.3
Forces and Motion
P2.4
Waves
P2.5
Magnets and Electromagnets
P2.6
Space Physics (Separates only)
1B
1B.1
Cells and organisation
1B.2
Enquiry
1B.5
Assessment
2B
2B.1
Interdependence
2B.2
Enquiry
2B.3
Halfway Review
2B.4
Ecosystems
2B.5
Assessment
3B
3B.2
Photosynthesis
4B
4B.1
Diet
4B.2
Enquiry
4B.6
Assessment
5B
5B.1
Reproduction
5B.2
Enquiry
5B.5
Assessment
6B
6B.1
Respiration
6B.2
Enquiry
6B.5
Assessment
8B
1C
1C.02
1C.12
2C
2C.1
Atoms, Molecules; Elements, Compounds & Mixtures
2C.2
Enquiry
2C.3
Halfway Review
2C.4
Particles in action
2C.5
Assessment
3C
3C.1
Substances and Separation
3C.2
Enquiry
3C.5
Assessment
4C
4C.1
Chemical & Physical Changes
4C.2
Enquiry
4C.5
Assessment
5C
5C.1
Structure of the Earth
5C.2
Enquiry
5C.5
Assessment
6C
6C.1
More Chemical reactions
7C
7C.2
Enquiry
7C.5
Assessment
8C
8C.1
The Rock Cycle
1P
1P.1
Introduction to forces
1P.2
Enquiry
1P.5
Assessment
2P
2P.1
Introduction to Energy
2P.2
Enquiry
2P.3
Halfway Review
2P.4
Heat transfer
2P.5
Assessment
3P
3P.2
Enquiry
3P.6
Assessment
4P
4P.1
Water Waves
4P.2
Enquiry
4P.5
Assessment
5P
5P.1
Simple Machines
5P.2
Enquiry
5P.5
Assessment
6P
6P.1
Magnetism
6P.2
Enquiry
7P
8P
8P.02
0S
1
B1
C1
P1
2
B2
C2
P2
B
1B
2B
3B
4B
5B
6B
8B
C
1C
2C
3C
4C
5C
6C
7C
8C
l
Del
I
BI
P
1P
2P
3P
4P
5P
6P
7P
8P
S
0S
