4th Sep '25

Schemes of Work

C2
- C2.1
  - Lesson 01 - How can we measure the rate of a chemical reaction? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The rate of a chemical reaction can be found by measuring the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of product formed over time: mean rate of reaction = quantity of reactant used / time taken OR mean rate of reaction = quantity of product formed / time taken
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo - iodine clock reaction with 5 student helpers
        time how long to react.
        sketch/plot a graph of results to work out rate from graph or calculate direct from results
        Equipment Required:
        RSC iodine clock demo (in your chem book)
    - The quantity of reactant or product can be measured by the mass in grams or by a volume in cm3.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Focus on gas collection (RP skills)
        
        React CaCO3 with dilute HCl and measure the volume of CO2 evolved against time. IV - number of marble chips or volume of acid.
        
        Calculate rate by mass of chips / time taken or volume or gas / time taken.
        
        Record the results and plot a graph of results of volume of gas against time.
        Equipment Required:
        Class set
        Marble Chips
        2M, 1.5M, 1M, 0.5M, 0.25M HCl
        Conical flasks
        Gas syringes
        Balances
        Sieve
    - The units of rate of reaction may be given as g/s or cm3/s.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Explain what is meant by the units:
        • g/s
        • cm3/s
        • mol/s.
    - Students are also required to use quantity of reactants in terms of moles and units for rate of reaction in mol/s. (HT only)
      - Suggested Activity:
        Extended writing: write instructions to another student how to calculate the mean rate of reaction.
    - Students should be able to calculate the mean rate of a reaction from given information about the quantity of a reactant used or the quantity of a product formed and the time taken
    - Students should be able to draw, and interpret, graphs showing the quantity of product formed or quantity of reactant used up against time
      - Suggested Activity:
        Analyse graphical data on ppt to identify and explain
        ie:
        •initially rate is fast
        •slows down
        •reaction completion
        
        Go further: complete the measuring rate of reaction worksheet.
    - Students should be able to draw tangents to the curves on these graphs and use the slope of the tangent as a measure of the rate of reaction
    - Students should be able to (HT only) calculate the gradient of a tangent to the curve on these graphs as a measure of rate of reaction at a specific time.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Get students to calculate the gradient from graphs they have analysed using tangents.
  - Lesson 02 - How do temperature and pressure affect the rate of a chemical reaction? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Collision theory explains how various factors affect rates of reactions. According to this theory, chemical reactions can occur only when reacting particles collide with each other and with sufficient energy.
      - Suggested Activity:
        use the fluffy balls to represent particles in reactions with changing factors. e.g higher/lower concentrations
        Equipment Required:
        fluffy balls
    - The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
    - Factors which affect the rates of chemical reactions include: the concentrations of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, the surface area of solid reactants, the temperature and the presence of catalysts.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Circus of mini practicals measuring the rate of reaction. Students record their results in the table (shared area).
        
        Go further: In terms of rates of reaction explain why grass needs to be cut more often in the summer months. You should include any relevant chemical equations.
        Equipment Required:
        Station 1: marble chips and acid, conical flask with gas syringe, different concentration of HCl, small measuring cylinders.
        jewellery balance
        sieve
        
        Station 2: marble chips and acid with delivery tube water bath set up, varying particle size of marble chips, measuring cylinders.
        jewellery balances
        sieve
        
        Station 3: mini scale sodium thiosulfate reaction with different temperature reactant (room temp, ice and water bath), measuring cylinders.
        
        Station 4: pieces of magnesium, 1 M hydrochloric acid, conical flask and gas syringe, measuring cylinders.
    - Increasing the temperature increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions more energetic, and so increases the rate of reaction.
    - The minimum amount of energy that particles must have to react is called the activation energy.
    - Students should be able to recall how changing the pressure of reacting gases affects the rate of chemical reactions.
    - Students should be able to recall how changing the temperature affects the rate of chemical reactions.
  - Lesson 03 - How do surface area and concentration affect the rate of a chemical reaction? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students should be able to predict and explain the effects of changes in the size of pieces of a reacting solid in terms of surface area to volume ratio
      - Suggested Activity:
        Investigate particle size impact on rate of reaction. Collecting gas using water troughs. Calculate rate using 1 / time taken.
        Equipment Required:
        3cm magnesium ribbon pieces
        Mg powder
        1M hcl
        conical flasks
        delivery tubes
        troughs
        measuring cylinders
        stopclocks
        spatulas
    - Increasing the concentration increases the frequency of collisions and makes the collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
    - Students should be able to recall how changing the concentrations of reactants in solution affects the rate of chemical reactions.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Go further: create summary diagrams to explain these effects without using any words.
    - Increasing the concentration of reactants in solution, the pressure of reacting gases, and the surface area of solid reactants increases the frequency of collisions and so increases the rate of reaction.
    - Students should be able to use simple ideas about proportionality when using collision theory to explain the effect of a factor on the rate of a reaction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Extended writing: Use collision theory to explain the change in rate of reaction in terms of particle behaviour for:
        
        • Concentration
        • Pressure
        • Surface area
        • Temperature
        • Catalyst.
    - Students should be able to predict and explain using collision theory the effects of changing conditions of concentration, pressure and temperature on the rate of a reaction
    - Students should be able to recall how changing the surface area of solid reactants affects the rate of chemical reactions.
  - Lesson 04 - Why are catalysts often used in chemical reactions? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Catalysts change the rate of chemical reactions but are not used up during the reaction. Different reactions need different catalysts.
      - Suggested Activity:
        demo:
        Elephants toothpaste
        Equipment Required:
        elephants toothpaste in large measuring cylinder and tray
    - Enzymes act as catalysts in biological systems.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Find out which is the best catalyst at decomposing hydrogen peroxide
        Equipment Required:
        per group:
        75 cm3 of 10 volume hydrogen peroxide solution. - About 0.5 g of powdered manganese(IV) oxide (manganese dioxide, MnO2). - About 0.5 g of lead(IV) oxide (lead dioxide, PbO2). - About 0.5 g of iron(III) oxide (red iron oxide, Fe2O3). - A small piece (about 1 cm3) of potato. - A small piece (about 1 cm3) of liver.
        washing up liquid in small beaker with pipette
        stop clock
        50ml cylinders
    - Catalysts increase the rate of reaction by providing a different pathway for the reaction that has a lower activation energy.
      
      * An opportunity to investigate the catalytic effect of adding different metal salts to a reaction such as the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide.
    - A reaction profile for a catalysed reaction can be drawn in the following form: (energy level diagram with reduced Ea with catalyst)
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students draw their predicted reaction profiles for with and without a catalyst -> evaluate and correct.
    - Students should be able to identify catalysts in reactions from their effect on the rate of reaction and because they are not included in the chemical equation for the reaction.
    - Students should be able to explain catalytic action in terms of activation energy.
    - Students do not need to know the names of catalysts other than those specified in the subject content.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Why are catalysts used in industry?
        
        Go further: You are in charge of a factory producing a chemical. Which factor would you change to increase the rate of reaction? Why?
    - Students should be able to recall how the presence of a catalyst affects the rate of chemical reactions.
  - Lesson 05 - What are reversible reactions? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students should be able to plan, complete and analyse a practical to measure how changing the concentration affects the rate of reaction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Required practical 5:
        Investigate how changes in concentration affect the rates of reactions by a method involving measuring the volume of a gas produced and a method involving a change in colour or turbidity. Calculate rate using 1 / time taken.
        Equipment Required:
        Class set:
        
        Magnesium ribbon cut to 1cm in length.
        2M, 1.5M, 1.0M, 1.5M, 0.5M, 0.25M hydrochloric acid
        Conical flasks
        Gas syringes
        Stopclocks
        50ml measuring cylinders
    - Required practical 5 - rates of reaction (developing a hypothesis) (AT skills 1,3,5,6)
  - Lesson 06 - What is dynamic equilibrium? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - In some chemical reactions, the products of the reaction can react to produce the original reactants.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Show the reversible reaction symbol - what does this mean?
    - Such reactions are called reversible reactions and are represented: A B (reversible arrow) C D
    - For example: ammonium chloride (heat - reversible arrow - cool) ammonia hydrogen chloride.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo 1:
        ammonium chloride is a white solid that breaks down into ammonia and hydrogen
        chloride gases when heated, leave to cool to see reverse reaction.
        Equipment Required:
        demo 1:
        ammonium chloride in boiling tube with mineral wool in the top
    - If a reversible reaction is exothermic in one direction, it is endothermic in the opposite direction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo 2:
        heat hydrous copper sulfate and then leave to cool/add water to show reverse reaction.
        Equipment Required:
        Demo 2:
        boiling tube of hydrous copper sulfate, distilled water.
    - In a reversible reaction the same amount of energy is transferred in each case. For example: hydrated copper sulfate [blue] (endothermic - reversible arrow - exothermic) anhydrous copper sulfate [white] water.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Show energy change sketch graphs for exothermic and endothermic reactions to help explain.
    - The direction of reversible reactions can be changed by changing the conditions.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Give several examples of reactions and ask students what will happen when temperature, concentration and pressure are changed.
        
        Go further: Students are to write their own exam question based on the learning in the topic. Must include a mark scheme on the other side. Swap with another student -> answer -> hand back and peer assess.
  - Lesson 07 - How can equilibrium be affected? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is increased:
      - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an endothermic reaction
      - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an exothermic reaction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo 1:
        The equilibrium of the cobalt chloride–water system;
        temperature. Observe colour of reaction at different temperatures (20,30,40 degrees)
        Equipment Required:
        class practical: -TECH notes- see chemistry folder C6.10 to make up solutions of coblat (II) chloride solutions.
        three test tubes labelled A, B and C each set to "turn" at the required temperatures for each group of students.
        water baths set up at 20, 30 and 40 degrees.
    - If the temperature of a system at equilibrium is decreased:
      - the relative amount of products at equilibrium decreases for an endothermic reaction
      - the relative amount of products at equilibrium increases for an exothermic reaction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        demo of co
    - Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in temperature on given reactions at equilibrium.
    - When a reversible reaction occurs in apparatus which prevents the escape of reactants and products, equilibrium is reached when the forward and reverse reactions occur at exactly the same rate.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Watch https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dUMmoPdwBy4
    - For gaseous reactions at equilibrium:
      ? an increase in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the smaller number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction
      ? a decrease in pressure causes the equilibrium position to shift towards the side with the larger number of molecules as shown by the symbol equation for that reaction.
    - Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of pressure changes on given reactions at equilibrium.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Go Further: complete the Haber process worksheet.
    - The relative amounts of all the reactants and products at equilibrium depend on the conditions of the reaction.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Ask students what happens when a bottle of coke is opened -> bubbles fizz out -> why? Affect of pressure on carbonic acid reversible reactions.
    - If a system is at equilibrium and a change is made to any of the conditions, then the system responds to counteract the change.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Watch the two videos and annotate the snap shots (hand outs - video 1 and video 2 in shared folder):
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zuUV455zFs
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XhQ02egUs5Y
        
        Go further: Write the correct sentences for the sentence exerts (shared area).
    - The effects of changing conditions on a system at equilibrium can be predicted using Le Chatelier's Principle.
    - Students should be able to make qualitative predictions about the effect of changes on systems at equilibrium when given appropriate information.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Complete dynamic equilibrium worksheet.
    - If the concentration of one of the reactants or products is changed, the system is no longer at equilibrium and the concentrations of all the substances will change until equilibrium is reached again.
    - If the concentration of a reactant is increased, more products will be formed until equilibrium is reached again.
    - If the concentration of a product is decreased, more reactants will react until equilibrium is reached again.
    - Students should be able to interpret appropriate given data to predict the effect of a change in concentration of a reactant or product on given reactions at equilibrium.
  - Lesson 08 - What is the Haber Process? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The Haber process is used to manufacture ammonia, which can be
      used to produce nitrogen-based fertilisers.
    - Some of the hydrogen and nitrogen reacts to form
      ammonia.
    - The reaction is reversible so some of the ammonia
      produced breaks down into nitrogen and hydrogen: nitrogen hydrogen --> <-- ammonia
    - ? explain how the commercially used conditions for the Haber process are related to the availability and cost of raw materials and energy supplies, control of equilibrium position and rate
    - On cooling, the ammonia liquefies and is removed. The remaining
      hydrogen and nitrogen are recycled.
    - MS 1a
      Recognise and use
      expressions in decimal form.
      MS 1c
      Use ratios, fractions and
      percentages.
    - ? apply the principles of dynamic equilibrium in
      Reversible reactions and dynamic equilibrium to the Haber process
    - ? explain the trade-off between rate of production and position of equilibrium
    - The raw materials for the Haber process are nitrogen and hydrogen
    - Students should be able to recall a source for the nitrogen and a source for the hydrogen used in the Haber process
    - The purified gases are passed over a catalyst of iron at a high
      temperature (about 450?C) and a high pressure (about 200
      atmospheres).
- C2.2
  - Lesson 01 - What is crude oil? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Crude oil is a finite resource found in rocks. Crude oil is the remains of an ancient biomass consisting mainly of plankton that was buried in mud.
    - Crude oil is a mixture of a very large number of compounds.
    - Most of the compounds in crude oil are hydrocarbons, which are molecules made up of hydrogen and carbon atoms only.
    - Most of the hydrocarbons in crude oil are hydrocarbons called alkanes. The general formula for the homologous series of alkanes is CnH2n+2
    - The first four members of the alkanes are methane, ethane, propane and butane.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Teach - Monkey's Eat Peanut Butter as recall for naming hydrocarbons
    - Alkane molecules can be represented in the following forms: C2H6 or displayed formula.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students deduce the general formula by modelling hydrocarbons
        Equipment Required:
        molymods
    - Students should be able to recognise substances as alkanes given their formulae in these forms.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Create a table with the name, symbol, diagram for the first four hydrocarbons
        
        GF: suggest what the naming would be for other larger hydrocabons
    - Students do not need to know the names of specific alkanes other than methane, ethane, propane and butane.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Plenary quiz showing the structure, symbols and students have to name
  - Lesson 02 - How can we seperate crude oil into useful fractions? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The many hydrocarbons in crude oil may be separated into fractions, each of which contains molecules with a similar number of carbon atoms, by fractional distillation.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo:
        1. Distillation of ethanol and water.
        2. Fractional distillation of crude oil
        
        Class activity:
        Model distillation of pupils using their heights to represent carbon chain length.
        Equipment Required:
        Crude oil demo - Fractional distillation
    - The fractions can be processed to produce fuels and feedstock for the petrochemical industry.
      - Suggested Activity:
        show a range of images of products made from hydrocarbons (plastics, Vaseline, bitumen, jet fuel, black seagulls (red heron) make up.
        
        Ask students to consider how their lives would be different if we didn't have access to crude oil
    - Many of the fuels on which we depend for our modern lifestyle, such as petrol, diesel oil, kerosene, heavy fuel oil and liquefied petroleum gases, are produced from crude oil.
    - Many useful materials on which modern life depends are produced by the petrochemical industry, such as solvents, lubricants, polymers, detergents.
    - The vast array of natural and synthetic carbon compounds occur due to the ability of carbon atoms to form families of similar compounds.
      - Suggested Activity:
        GF: Compare the process of forming different polymers from crude oil similar to proteins synthesis.
    - Students should be able to explain how fractional distillation works in terms of evaporation and condensation.
      - Suggested Activity:
        EW: Use a flow map to plan and then "Explain how crude oil is separated."
    - Knowledge of the names of other specific fractions or fuels is not required.
    - Some properties of hydrocarbons depend on the size of their molecules, including boiling point, viscosity and flammability. These properties influence how hydrocarbons are used as fuels. (WS) Investigate the properties of different hydrocarbons.
    - Students should be able to recall how boiling point, viscosity and flammability change with increasing molecular size.
      - Suggested Activity:
        EW: Describe how the properties of hydrocarbons changes as their carbon chain length increases
  - Lesson 03 - What is a combustion reaction? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The complete combustion of a hydrocarbon produces carbon dioxide and water.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Stretch - Recall the products of combustion reaction using images to prompt students.
        Challenge -
        write and balance the symbol equation for the combustion reaction for methane
    - Students should be able to write balanced equations for the complete combustion of hydrocarbons with a given formula.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Teach/Remind students that combustion reactions are examples of oxidation reactions
    - During combustion, the carbon and hydrogen in the fuels are oxidised.
    - The combustion of hydrocarbon fuels releases energy.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Think > pair > share
        why are combustion reactions useful?
    - Knowledge of trends in properties of hydrocarbons is limited to: ? boiling points, ? viscosity, ? flammability.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Investigating the flammability (how easy is it to ignite and cleanness of flame) and viscosity of different hydrocarbons (timing how long it takes to drip down the tile)
        
        Students should identify the IV and DV and describe the control of the CV.
        Evaluate the quality of your data
        Equipment Required:
        white tiles
        samples of hydrocabons
        small metal tubs (mineral wool)
        pipettes
        splints
        timers
  - Lesson 04 - What is cracking and why is it done? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Hydrocarbons can be broken down (cracked) to produce smaller, more useful molecules.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Ask students to recall or work out what the term thermal decomposition means
    - Cracking can be done by various methods including catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Model the idea of cracking using diagrams and pupil demos
    - Students should be able to describe in general terms the conditions used for catalytic cracking and steam cracking.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students construct word or symbol equations to show the process of cracking with steam
    - The products of cracking include alkanes and another type of hydrocarbon called alkenes.
      - Suggested Activity:
        demo cracking to show the products formed
        Equipment Required:
        Cracking demo
    - Students should be able to balance chemical equations as examples of cracking given the formulae of the reactants and products.
      - Suggested Activity:
        demo and example of how to complete cracking equations and then give a range for students to complete
    - Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes and react with bromine water, which is used as a test for alkenes.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Teach students that C=C bond in alkenes and that is what makes them different to alkanes
    - Students should be able to recall the colour change when bromine water reacts with an alkene.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Class practical - identifying unknown hydrocarbons using bromine water
        Equipment Required:
        test tubes filled with cyclohexane and cyclohexene labelled A and B.
        Bromine water.
    - There is a high demand for fuels with small molecules and so some of the products of cracking are useful as fuels.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Tidying away task: "Why is cracking so important?"
        Use images to prompt students if necessary
    - Alkenes are used to produce polymers and as starting materials for the production of many other chemicals.
    - Students should be able to give examples to illustrate the usefulness of cracking. They should also be able to explain how modern life depends on the uses of hydrocarbons. (For Combined Science: Trilogy and Synergy students do not need to know the formulae or names of individual alkenes.)
  - Lesson 05 - How do alkenes differ from alkanes? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Alkenes are hydrocarbons with a double carbon-carbon bond.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Stretch - identify if hydrocarbons are alkanes or alkenes using their structural formulas
        Challenge - identify if hydrocarbons are alkanes or alkenes using only their empirical formulas
    - The general formula for the homologous series of alkenes is CnH2n. Recognise substances that are alkenes from their names or from given formulae in these forms.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Ask them to deduce the general formula from the starter activity
    - Alkene molecules are unsaturated because they contain two fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane with the same number of carbon atoms.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Compare the structures of both and remind them of the reaction with chlorine.
    - Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of water alkenes
      - Suggested Activity:
        Introduce the concept of specific conditions for addition reactions.
    - Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of halogens to alkenes
    - The first four members of the homologous series of alkenes are ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Apply Monkeys Eat Peanut Butter to the alkenes
    - Alkene molecules can be represented in the following forms: C3H6 or displayed formula
    - Students do not need to know the names of individual alkenes other than ethene, propene, butene and pentene.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Draw the structural and display formula for the first five alkenes.
    - Alkenes are hydrocarbons with the functional group C=C.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Teach what a functional group is and then ask them to identify the functional groups of alkenes, alcohols and carboxylic acids
    - It is the generality of reactions of functional groups that determine the reactions of organic compounds.
    - Alkenes react with oxygen in combustion reactions in the same way as other hydrocarbons, but they tend to burn in air with smoky flames because of incomplete combustion.
    - Alkenes react with hydrogen, water and the halogens, by the addition of atoms across the carbon-carbon double bond so that the double bond becomes a single carbon-carbon bond.
    - Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
    - Students should be able to describe the reactions and conditions for the addition of hydrogen to alkenes
    - Students should be able to draw fully displayed structural formulae of the first four members of the alkenes and the products of their addition reactions with hydrogen, water, chlorine, bromine and iodine.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Produce a table that summarises the different reactions of alkenes, it should include their reaction with oxygen, with air, addition hydrogen and halogens. The table should include any critical observations and the products formed.
        Equipment Required:
        teacher demo:
        complete combustion of hydrocarbons - bunsen burnen open burning clean (ethene)
        incomplete combustion - bunsen burner closed or spirit burner with butane/hexane(?) one with a smokey flame.
        class practical:
        16 test tubes with small amount of alkane and 16 with small amount of alkene. 6-8 bottles of bromine water.
  - Lesson 06 - How can alcohols be made? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Alcohols contain the functional group ?OH.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Recall the functional group from alcohols from last lesson
    - Methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol are the first four members of a homologous series of alcohols. Opportunities when investigating reactions of alcohols.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Apply the naming process Monkey's Eat Peanut Butter to the first four members of the alcohols
    - Alcohols can be represented in the following forms: CH3CH2OH or displayed formula
      - Suggested Activity:
        Deduce the structure of the first four alcohols
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with sodium
    - Students should be able to recognise alcohols from their names from given formulae.
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with burn in air
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo the reaction of alcohols with sodium. Students can complete the rest of the practicals themselves constructing a table of the products and observations.
        
        http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00000463/the-properties-of-alcohols?cmpid=CMP00005962
        Equipment Required:
        Each group of students will need:
        Test tubes, 2
        Boiling tubes, 2
        Beakers (100 cm3), 2 (Note 2)
        Tin lid
        Wooden splint
        Heat resistant mat
        Bunsen burner
        Boiling tube holder
        Dropping pipette (for water)
        Universal indicator paper (full range, pH 1-14)
        Forceps for sodium
        Filter paper for sodium
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols are added to water
    - Students should be able to recall the main uses of these alcohols.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Tidying away task:
        Identify the main use of alcohols (use images to prompt)
    - Aqueous solutions of ethanol are produced when sugar solutions are fermented using yeast.
    - Students should know the conditions used for fermentation of sugar using yeast.
    - Students do not need to know the names of individual alcohols other than methanol, ethanol, propanol and butanol.
    - Students are not expected to write balanced chemical equations for the reactions of alcohols other than for combustion reactions.
  - Lesson 07 - How are carboxylic acids and esters made and what do they do? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four alcohols react with an oxidising agent
    - Carboxylic acids have the functional group ?COOH.
      - Suggested Activity:
        show the structural formula of an alcohol and oxygen and ask what the product might look like. students should then identified the functional group.
    - The first four members of a homologous series of carboxylic acids are methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid. (WS) Opportunies within investigation of the reactions of carboxylic acids.
    - The structures of carboxylic acids can be represented in the following
      forms: CH3COOH or displayed formula
    - Students should be able to recognise carboxylic acids from their names or from given formulae.
      - Suggested Activity:
        apply previous learning to identify the names and the structures of the first four carboxylic acids
    - (HT only) explain why carboxylic acids are weak acids in terms of ionisation and pH (see Strong and weak acids
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with carbonates
    - Students do not need to know the names of individual carboxylic acids other than methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid and butanoic acid.
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids dissolve in water
      - Suggested Activity:
        Reactions of carboxylic acids:
        1. Testing for pH:
        universal indicator or universal indicator paper
        2. Dissolve in solution and re test the pH
        3. React with a metal carbonate and bubble gas through limewater to show products
        Equipment Required:
        1.0M ethanoic acid
        test tubes
        universal indicator
        pipettes
        lime water
        bungs with delivery tubes
        metal carbonates
    - Students should be able to describe what happens when any of the first four carboxylic acids react with alcohols.
      - Suggested Activity:
        preparing etsers
        http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00001743/making-esters-from-alcohols-and-acids?cmpid=CMP00005257
        Equipment Required:
        http://www.rsc.org/learn-chemistry/resource/res00001743/making-esters-from-alcohols-and-acids?cmpid=CMP00005257
        *please put conc acid in test tube for the lesson*
        
        Each working group will require:
        
        Eye protection
        Glass specimen tubes, 4 (Note 1)
        Plastic dropping pipettes, access to adequate supply
        Beaker (100 cm3 or 250 cm3), (Note 1)
        Test-tubes, 4
        Test-tube rack
        Bunsen burner
        Heat resistant mat
        Tripod and gauze
        Crucible tongs
    - Students are not expected to write balanced chemical equations for the reactions of carboxylic acids.
    - Students do not need to know the names of esters other than ethyl ethanoate.
- C2.3
  - Lesson 01 - How can we identify the purity of a substance? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - In chemistry, a pure substance is a single element or compound, not mixed with any other substance.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Design a flow chart assigning elements/compounds/mixtures as pure or impure.
        Why is 'pure' orange juice not pure?
    - A formulation is a mixture that has been designed as a useful product.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Case study: How tablets are made to ensure that the taker receives the correct dose of medication.
    - Pure elements and compounds melt and boil at specific temperatures. Melting point and boiling point data can be used to distinguish pure substances from mixtures.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Study a range of melting points of pure and impure substances. Students draw conclusions from this.
    - Formulations include fuels, cleaning agents, paints, medicines, alloys, fertilisers and foods.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Study a recipe and discuss how changing the recipe may affect the food product made. Link to formulations and why we use formulations
    - In everyday language, a pure substance can mean a substance that has had nothing added to it, so it is unadulterated and in its natural state, eg pure milk.
    - Formulations are made by mixing the components in carefully measured quantities to ensure that the product has the required properties.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Suggested practical:
        Making mayonnaise
        Equipment Required:
        Making mayonnaise
        
        Per group:
        •Small screw top bottles (100 cm3) or test tubes and bungs
        • Pipettes
        • Teaspoons (or disposable plastic spoons)
        • Cooking oil
        • Washing up liquid
        • Sugar
        • Flour
        • Mustard powder
        • Egg
        • 2 bowls (or 100 cm3 glass beakers)
        • Egg yolk separator
        •Plastic disposable gloves
    - Students should be able to use melting point and boiling point data to distinguish pure from impure substances.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Analyse information on the melting points of pure gold against counterfeits as a method for determining purity
    - Students should be able to identify formulations given appropriate information.
  - Lesson 02 - How can we use chemical tests to identify an unknown gas? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The test for carbon dioxide uses an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide (lime water). When carbon dioxide is shaken with or bubbled through limewater the limewater turns milky (cloudy).
      - Suggested Activity:
        Practical: Testing for different gases
        - Hydrogen
        - Carbon dioxide
        - Oxygen
        - Chlorine
        
        Students to plan and investigate the gas tests
        Equipment Required:
        Practical: Testing for different gases
        Prepared samples of:
        - Hydrogen
        - Oxygen
        - Chlorine
        
        Equipment to prepare Carbon dioxide:
        -Marble chips
        -Hydrochloric acid
        -Delivery tubes
        -Conical flasks
    - Students do not need to know the names of components in proprietary products.
    - The test for hydrogen uses a burning splint held at the open end of a test tube of the gas. Hydrogen burns rapidly with a pop sound
    - The test for chlorine uses litmus paper. When damp litmus paper is put into chlorine gas the litmus paper is bleached and turns white.
    - The test for oxygen uses a glowing splint inserted into a test tube of the gas. The splint relights in oxygen
  - Lesson 03 - How can we use paper chromatography to identify an unknown mixture? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Chromatography can be used to separate mixtures and can give information to help identify substances.
    - Chromatography involves a stationary phase and a mobile phase.
    - Separation depends on the distribution of substances between the phases
      - Suggested Activity:
        Watch video of cars racing down runway (attached on ppt on shared drive). Thinking point - Why did the cars cross the line at different times?
    - The ratio of the distance moved by a compound (centre of spot from origin) to the distance moved by the solvent can be expressed as its R value
    - RT = distance moved by substance / distance moved by solvent
    - Different compounds have different R values in different solvents,
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students use mock chromatograms to calculate Rf values and identify unknown substance. Spice it up as a ransom note.
    - Rf values can be used to help identify the compounds.
    - The compounds in a mixture may separate into different spots depending on the solvent but a pure compound will produce a single spot in all solvents.
    - Students should be able to explain how paper chromatography separates mixtures
      - Suggested Activity:
        Research where chromatography is used in forensics - Inks, colourings, dyes, drugs etc
    - Students should be able to suggest how chromatographic methods can be used for distinguishing pure substances from impure substances
    - Students should be able to interpret chromatograms and determine R values from
      chromatograms
    - provide answers to an appropriate number of significant figures. (MS)
    - Elements and compounds can be detected and identified using instrumental methods. Instrumental methods are accurate, sensitive and rapid.
    - Students should be able to state advantages of instrumental methods compared with the chemical tests in this specification.
  - Lesson 04 - Required practical: Chromatography Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Required practical 6 - Chromatography (AT skills 1,4)
      - Suggested Activity:
        Investigate how paper chromatography can be used to separate and tell the
        difference between coloured substances.
        Equipment Required:
        For the basic method - per group
        • a 250 cm3 beaker
        • a wooden spill or pencil to support the chromatography paper
        • paper clip
        • a ruler
        • a pencil
        • distilled water
        • four known food colourings labelled A–D
        • unknown food colouring labelled U
        • rectangle of chromatography paper
        • five glass capillary melting point tubes.
  - Lesson 05 - How can we use chemical tests to identify unknown ionic compounds? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Flame tests can be used to identify some metal ions (cations). Lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium and copper compounds produce distinctive colours in flame tests: ? lithium compounds result in a crimson flame
      ? sodium compounds result in a yellow flame
      ? potassium compounds result in a lilac flame
      ? calcium compounds result in an orange-red flame
      ? copper compounds result in a green flame.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Flame tests.
        Equipment Required:
        Splints. Metal oxide powders for testing flame tests.
    - If a sample containing a mixture of ions is used some flame colours can be masked
    - Carbonates react with dilute acids to form carbon dioxide gas. Carbon dioxide can be identified with limewater.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students design a flow diagram on testing for positive ions.
    - Students should be able to identify species from the results of the tests in 4.8.3.1 to 4.8.3.5.
    - Halide ions in solution produce precipitates with silver nitrate solution in the presence of dilute nitric acid. Silver chloride is white, silver bromide is cream and silver iodide is yellow.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Students design a flow diagram on testing for negative ions.
    - Flame colours of other metal ions are not required knowledge.
      - Suggested Activity:
        SEPARATE EW
        A group of students had four different colourless solutions in beakers 1, 2, 3 and 4,
        
        The students knew that the solutions were
        • sodium chloride
        • sodium iodide
        • sodium carbonate
        • potassium carbonate
        
        but did not know which solution was in each beaker.
        
        Plan a method that could be used to identify each solution.
        
        You may use the following reagents:
        • dilute nitric acid
        • silver nitrate solution.
        
        It is suggested that a flame test is used to identify the positive ions.
        
        Outline a method that could identify the four solutions.
        
        You should include the results of the tests you describe.
  - Lesson 06 - Required practical: Identifying ions Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Required practical 7 - identifying ions (AT skills 1,8)
      - Suggested Activity:
        Use of chemical tests to identify the ions in unknown single ionic compounds
        covering the ions from Flame tests and sulphates.
        Equipment Required:
        LiCl, NaCl, KCl, CaCl, CuCl powders
        Na2Co3, Na2So4, NaCl, NaBr, NaI 0.4M solutions
        Unknown Solution=0.4M KCl.
        0.4M barium choride sol,
        0.4M nitric acid, 0.05M silver nitrate sol.
        Limewater, boiling tubes & delivery tubes.
        Nichrome wires
    - Sulfate ions in solution produce a white precipitate with barium chloride solution in the presence of dilute hydrochloric acid.
    - Sodium hydroxide solution can be used to identify some metal ions (cations).
    - Solutions of aluminium, calcium and magnesium ions form white precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added but only the aluminium hydroxide precipitate dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution.
    - Solutions of copper(II), iron(II) and iron(III) ions form coloured precipitates when sodium hydroxide solution is added. Copper(II) forms a blue precipitate, iron(II) a green precipitate and iron(III) a brown precipitate.
    - Students should be able to write balanced equations for the reactions to produce the insoluble hydroxides.
    - Students are not expected to write equations for the production of sodium aluminate.
    - Flame emission spectroscopy is an example of an instrumental method used to analyse metal ions in solutions.
      - Suggested Activity:
        GCSE pod video on flame emission spectroscopy brilliantly explains the process. Link back to why it is a more reliable test than a basic flame test.
    - The sample is put into a flame and the light given out is passed through a spectroscope. The output is a line spectrum that can be analysed to identify the metal ions in the solution and measure their concentrations.
    - Students should be able to interpret an instrumental result given appropriate data in chart or tabular form, when accompanied by a reference set in the same form, limited to flame emission spectroscopy.
- C2.4
  - Lesson 01 - How has the Earth's atmopshere changed since its formation? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students to recall current composition of the earths atmosphere: about four-fifths (approximately 80 %) nitrogen, about one-fifth (approximately 20 %) oxygen and small proportions of various other gases, including carbon dioxide, water vapour and noble gases.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Draw accurate pie charts for the composition of the atmosphere.
    - Students should be able to, given appropriate information, interpret
      evidence and evaluate different theories about the Earth's early
      atmosphere.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Earths early atmosphere:
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gyn754vw8ZQ
    - One theory suggests that during the first billion years of the Earth's
      existence there was intense volcanic activity that released gases that
      formed the early atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to
      form the oceans. At the start of this period the Earth's atmosphere
      may have been like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus today,
      consisting of mainly carbon dioxide with little or no oxygen gas.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Evolution of the Earth's atmosphere:
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gwGeH9O8Rx4
    - Volcanoes also produced nitrogen which gradually built up in the
      atmosphere and there may have been small proportions of methane
      and ammonia.
    - When the oceans formed carbon dioxide dissolved in the water and
      carbonates were precipitated producing sediments, reducing the
      amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. No knowledge of other
      theories is required.
    - Algae and plants produced the oxygen that is now in the atmosphere
      by photosynthesis, which can be represented by the equation.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Demo: Aquatic plants (eg Elodea) producing oxygen in daylight.
        (Interleaving opportunity to require practical with colours and ruler for intensity).
        Equipment Required:
        DEMO:
        Aquatic plant in water with high carbonate concentration.
        Lamp
        different coloured acetates
        meter ruler
    - Algae first produced oxygen about 2.7 billion years ago and soon after
      this oxygen appeared in the atmosphere. Over the next billion years
      plants evolved and the percentage of oxygen gradually increased to a
      level that enabled animals to evolve.
    - Algae and plants decreased the percentage of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere by photosynthesis.
    - Carbon dioxide was also decreased by the formation of sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels that contain carbon.
    - Students should be able to describe the main changes in the atmosphere over time and some of the likely causes of these changes
      - Suggested Activity:
        2 x Demos to show the reactions occurring in a volcano
        
        EW: Describe the theory of the evolution of the Earth’s early atmosphere.
        or
        Explain why the composition of the atmosphere has changed over billions of years.
        or
        Compare the Earth’s atmosphere to that of Mars and Venus.
        Equipment Required:
        Demo 1:
        1. Cover the desk with foil and complete the demonstration behind a safety
        screen. Wear eye protection.
        2. Spread approximately 5g of Potassium Permanganate (VII) on to the
        metal dish.
        3. Pour over approximately 10ml of glycerol, stand back and observe.
    - Students should be able to describe and explain the formation of deposits of limestone, coal, crude oil and natural gas.
  - Lesson 02 - How does carbon dioxide help sustain earths climate? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Oreenhouse gases in the atmosphere maintain temperatures on Earth high enough to support life. Water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Describe the effect of greenhouse gases on wavelength.
    - Students should be able to describe the greenhouse effect in terms of the interaction of short and long wavelength radiation with matter.
    - Some human activities increase the amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. These include:
      - carbon dioxide
      - methane.
      Students should be able to recall two human activities that increase the amounts of each of the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane.
    - Based on peer-reviewed evidence, many scientists believe that human activities will cause the temperature of the Earth's atmosphere to increase at the surface and that this will result in global climate change. - b
    - There are difficulties in such complex systems as global climate change. This leads to simplified models, speculation and opinions presented in the media that may be based on only parts of the evidence and which may be biased.
    - Students should be able to evaluate the quality of evidence in a report about global climate change given appropriate information
    - Students should be able to describe uncertainties in the evidence base
    - Students should be able to recognise the importance of peer review of results and of communicating results to a wide range of audiences.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Use the internet to obtain data for concentrations of greenhouse gases.
        Evaluate the reliability of the data available on the internet.
        
        Research the process of peer review in reporting results/data.
  - Lesson 03 - How is human activity resulting in climate change? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - An increase in average global temperature is a major cause of climate change.
      There are several potential effects of global climate changes.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Causes of climate change
        https://www.bbc.com/education/clips/zvw34wx
    - Students should be able to describe briefly four potential effects of global climate change
      - Suggested Activity:
        Greenhouse effect and global warming
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dP-tg4atr5M
        
        Watch the polar ice caps melting and water levels rising but building land with the plasticine, add water and 1 ice cube. Mark water level on the beaker, allow ice to melt and check water level and effects on land.
        Equipment Required:
        Beakers
        plasticine
        (SNK likes pertri dishes)
        Ice
        OHP pens
    - Students should be able to discuss the scale, risk and environmental implications of global climate change.
    - The carbon footprint is the total amount of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases emitted over the full life cycle of a product, service or event.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Describe what a carbon footprint is.
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YB9TCxhjVHo
        
        Calculate students carbon footprints using:
        WWF Footprint Calculator
    - The carbon footprint can be reduced by reducing emissions of carbon dioxide and methane.
    - Students should be able to describe actions to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and methane
      - Suggested Activity:
        Describe how emissions can be reduced. Suggest the consequences of the reductions on the Earth, atmosphere and everyday life.
    - Students should be able to give reasons why actions may be limited.
  - Lesson 04 - What are the consequences of burning fossil fuels upon the atmopshere? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The combustion of fuels is a major source of atmospheric pollutants.
    - Most fuels, including coal, contain carbon and/or hydrogen and may also contain some sulfur.
      - Suggested Activity:
        What is combustion?
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zEjEqnMBdEM
    - The gases released into the atmosphere when a fuel is burned may include carbon dioxide, water vapour, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen. Solid particles and unburned hydrocarbons may also be released that form particulates in the atmosphere.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Combustion and acid rain
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HE6Y0iEuXMQ
        
        Explain why the following can be produced in combustion:
        • Carbon dioxide
        • Carbon monoxide
        • Soot
        • Water vapour
        • Sulfur dioxide
        • Oxides of nitrogen.
    - Students should be able to describe how carbon monoxide, soot (carbon particles), sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen are produced by burning fuels.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Research task: Study the effects of emisions of:
        • Carbon monoxide on the human body.
        • Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen on acidity of rain water.
        • Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen on respiratory system.
        • Particulates on global dimming.
        • Particulates on human health problems.
    - Carbon monoxide is a toxic gas. It is colourless and odourless and so is not easily detected.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Investigate the effects of pollution on rain water using titration. Aim To find out how much alkali is needed to neutralise four samples of rain water.
        enough samples for each group to test one once (20mL per group) and shared results.
        China - pH 1-2
        UK - pH 6
        Greenland pH 7
        Australia - pH 4-5
        
        Phenolphthalein colourless in acidic and pink in alkaline solutions.
        Equipment Required:
        4 samples of "rain water" spiked to have different pH values labelled as:
        China - pH 1-2
        UK - pH 6
        Greenland pH 7
        Australia - pH 4-5
        (in main chem store)
        enough samples for each group to test one once (20mL per group) and shared results.
        
        alkali solution (NaOH) that will neutralise each sample(countries) at a suitable concentration.
        burettes
        conical flasks
        Universal indicator
        pipettes
        20mL measuring cylinders
        NaOH 1molar 50ml per group in burettes
    - Sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen cause respiratory problems in humans and cause acid rain.
    - Particulates cause global dimming and health problems for humans.
    - Students should be able to describe and explain the problems caused by increased amounts of these pollutants in the air.
- C2.5
  - Lesson 01 - Should we use plastic or paper bags? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Humans use the Earth's resources to provide warmth, shelter, food and transport.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Think Pair Share
        Show picture of a carton of orange juice. Get students to think about all of the different materials that go into making that product and where they come from.
    - Natural resources, supplemented by agriculture, provide food, timber, clothing and fuels.
    - Finite resources from the Earth, oceans and atmosphere are processed to provide energy and materials.
    - Chemistry plays an important role in improving agricultural and industrial processes to provide new products and in sustainable development, which is development that meets the needs of current generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Analyse data as to estimates of how long different resources will last.
        
        What options do we have and when they run out
    - Students should be able to state examples of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Research examples of natural products that are supplemented or replaced by agricultural and synthetic products. (NYLON)
    - Students should be able to distinguish between finite and renewable resources given appropriate information.
    - Students should be able to extract and interpret information about resources from charts, graphs and tables.
    - Students should be able to use orders of magnitude to evaluate the significance of data.
    - Life cycle assessments (LCAs) are carried out to assess the environmental impact of products in each of these stages:
      - extracting and processing raw materials
      - manufacturing and packaging
      - use and operation during its lifetime
      - disposal at the end of its useful life, including transport and distribution at each stage.
      - Suggested Activity:
        TED talk LCA's:
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d7F0DWjzq0U
    - Use of water, resources, energy sources and production of some wastes can be fairly easily quantified. Allocating numerical values to pollutant effects is less straightforward and requires value judgements, so LCA is not a purely objective process.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Carry out a simple comparative LCAs for shopping bags made from plastic and paper. Info on shared drive
    - Selective or abbreviated LCAs can be devised to evaluate a product but these can be misused to reach pre-determined conclusions, eg in support of claims for advertising purposes.
    - Students should be able to carry out simple comparative LCAs for shopping bags made from plastic and paper.
  - Lesson 02 - How can the three R's improve our future? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The reduction in use, reuse and recycling of materials by end users reduces the use of limited resources, use of energy sources, waste and environmental impacts.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Recycling plastics (90's special)
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s5p6Nk3SzcU
    - Metals, glass, building materials, clay ceramics and most plastics are produced from limited raw materials.
    - Much of the energy for the processes comes from limited resources.
    - Obtaining raw materials from the Earth by quarrying and mining causes environmental impacts.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Extended writing: Describe the environmental impacts of obtaining raw materials from the Earth.
    - Some products, such as glass bottles, can be reused. Glass bottles can be crushed and melted to make different glass products. Other products cannot be reused and so are recycled for a different use.
    - Metals can be recycled by melting and recasting or reforming into different products.
    - The amount of separation required for recycling depends on the material and the properties required of the final product. For example, some scrap steel can be added to iron from a blast furnace to reduce the amount of iron that needs to be extracted from iron ore.
    - Students should be able to evaluate ways of reducing the use of limited resources, given appropriate information.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Design an informative poster aimed at future generations to encourage them to recycle, reuse, reduce.
  - Lesson 03 - How is water made safe for human consumption? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Water of appropriate quality is essential for life. For humans, drinking water should have sufficiently low levels of dissolved salts and microbes.
    - Urban lifestyles and industrial processes produce large amounts of waste water that require treatment before being released into the environment.
    - Water that is safe to drink is called potable water. Potable water is not pure water in the chemical sense because it contains dissolved substances.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Compare the composition of:
        • potable water
        • pure water.
        
        Why do we not drink pure water?
    - Sewage and agricultural waste water require removal of organic matter and harmful microbes. Industrial waste water may require removal of organic matter and harmful chemicals.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Treating waste water:
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YW6GBciRHLg
    - The methods used to produce potable water depend on available supplies of water and local conditions.
    - Sewage treatment includes:
      ? screening and grit removal
      ? sedimentation to produce sewage sludge and effluent
      ? anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge
      ? aerobic biological treatment of effluent.
    - In the United Kingdom (UK), rain provides water with low levels of dissolved substances (fresh water) that collects in the ground and in lakes and rivers, and most potable water is produced by:
      - choosing an appropriate source of fresh water
      - passing the water through filter beds
      - sterilising.
    - Students should be able to comment on the relative ease of obtaining potable water from waste, ground and salt water.
    - Sterilising agents used for potable water include chlorine, ozone or ultraviolet light.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Thinking task:
        Task students with coming up with a solution to supplying water to a city that only has access to salt water (such as Dubai).
        
        Review ideas and then go through distillation and osmosis.
    - If supplies of fresh water are limited, desalination of salty water or sea water may be required.
    - Desalination can be done by distillation or
      by processes that use membranes such as reverse osmosis.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Extended writing: Describe the process of desalination.
        or
        Describe the process of distillation
        or
        Explain how distillation separates substances.
    - These processes require large amounts of energy.
    - Students should be able to distinguish between potable water and pure water.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Think/Pair/Share
        Why do we not drink pure water?
    - Students should be able to describe the differences in treatment of ground water and salty water.
    - Students should be able to give reasons for the steps used to produce potable water.
  - Lesson 04 - Required practical - how is potable water made? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students should be able to carry out analysis and purification of water samples from different sources, including pH, dissolved solids and distillation.
    - Required practical 8 - purifying water (AT skills 2,3,4)
  - Lesson 05 - How can we extract metals from low grade ores? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - The Earth?s resources of metal ores are limited.
    - Copper ores are becoming scarce and new ways of extracting copper from low-grade ores include phytomining, and bioleaching.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Think/Pair/Share
        Demand for copper continues to increase, but the Earth's supplies are dwindling. How could we overcome this?
        
        Bioleaching and Phytomining
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XF399zN36LE
    - These methods avoid traditional mining methods of digging, moving and disposing of large amounts of rock.
    - Phytomining uses plants to absorb metal compounds. The plants are harvested and then burned to produce ash that contains metal compounds.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Create a cartoon story board: Process of phytomining.
    - Bioleaching uses bacteria to produce leachate solutions that contain metal compounds.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Bioleaching:
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eLeLPYUeCH8
    - The metal compounds can be processed to obtain the metal. For example, copper can be obtained from solutions of copper compounds by displacement using scrap iron or by electrolysis.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Opportunity to recap methods of extracting metals from their ores
    - Students should be able to evaluate alternative biological methods of metal extraction, given appropriate information.
  - Lesson 06 - What are NPK fertilisers? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Ammonia can be used to manufacture ammonium salts and nitric acid.
    - Students should be able to recall the names of the salts produced when phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid, sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid
    - Potassium chloride, potassium sulfate and phosphate rock are obtained by mining, but phosphate rock cannot be used directly as a fertiliser
    - Phosphate rock is treated with nitric acid or sulfuric acid to produce soluble salts that can be used as fertilisers.
    - (HT only) Students should be able to:
      interpret graphs of reaction conditions versus rate
    - Students should be able to compare the industrial production of fertilisers with laboratory preparations of the same compounds, given appropriate information
    - Compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium are used as fertilisers to improve agricultural productivity. NPK fertilisers contain compounds of all three elements.
    - Industrial production of NPK fertilisers can be achieved using a variety of raw materials in several integrated processes
    - NPK fertilisers are formulations of various salts containing appropriate percentages of the elements.
  - Lesson 07 - Lesson Plan Lesson Title
- C2.6
  - Lesson 01 - How can corrosion be useful? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Corrosion is the destruction of materials by chemical reactions with substances in the environment.
    - Corrosion can be prevented by applying a coating that acts as a barrier, such as greasing, painting or electroplating.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Practical investigation placing nails in test tubes that contain water, oil, air or smeared with Vaseline.
        Get technitians to keep for a week and ask for them back to evaluate
        GF: Why are sacrifical metals used in boats?
        Equipment Required:
        Nails
        Test tubes
        Rubber bungs
        oil
        Vaseline
    - Students should be able to describe experiments and interpret results to show that both air and water are necessary for rusting.
    - Rusting is an example of corrosion. Both air and water are necessary for iron to rust.
    - Some coatings are reactive and contain a more reactive metal to provide sacrificial protection, eg zinc is used to galvanise iron.
    - Aluminium has an oxide coating that protects the metal from further corrosion.
    - Students should be able to explain sacrificial protection in terms of relative reactivity.
  - Lesson 02 - How are alloys made? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Most metals in everyday use are alloys.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Match up alloys names and what they are made from.
        Practical: making solder
        Equipment Required:
        Each group will need:
        Lead (TOXIC, DANGEROUS FOR THE ENVIRONMENT), about 2 g
        Tin, about 2 g
        Carbon powder, about 2 g
        
        Eye protection
        
        Thermal protection gloves
        
        Each working group requires:
        Crucible
        Pipe clay triangle
        Bunsen burner
        Tripod
        Heat resistant mat
        Spatula
        Tongs (Note 1)
        Casting sand (Note 2)
        Metal sand trays or sturdy metal lids, 2 (Note 2)
        Balance (no decimal places needed)
    - Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin. Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
    - Gold used as jewellery is usually an alloy with silver, copper and zinc. The proportion of gold in the alloy is measured in carats. 24 carat being 100 % (pure gold), and 18 carat being 75 % gold.
    - Steels are alloys of iron that contain specific amounts of carbon and other metals.
    - High carbon steel is strong but brittle. Low carbon steel is softer and more easily shaped.
    - Steels containing chromium and nickel (stainless steels) are hard and resistant to corrosion.
    - Aluminium alloys are low density.
    - Students should be able to recall a use of each of the alloys specified.
  - Lesson 03 - What products can be made from the Earth's materials? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Most of the glass we use is soda-lime glass, made by heating a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate and limestone.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Making concrete - testing strength using masses (consider making lesson before or testing in subsequent lessons)
        Equipment Required:
        making concrete:
        sand
        gravel
        water
        moulds
    - Borosilicate glass, made from sand and boron trioxide, melts at higher temperatures than soda-lime glass.
    - Students should be able to, given appropriate information compare quantitatively the physical properties of glass and clay ceramics, polymers, composites and metals.
    - Students should be able to interpret and evaluate the composition and uses of alloys other
      than those specified given appropriate information.
    - Clay ceramics, including pottery and bricks, are made by shaping wet clay and then heating in a furnace.
    - Most composites are made of two materials, a matrix or binder surrounding and binding together fibres or fragments of the other material, which is called the reinforcement.
    - Students should be able to recall some examples of composites.
  - Lesson 04 - Why are some plastics hard and others flexible? Lesson Plan Lesson Title
    - Students should be able to, given appropriate information explain how the properties of materials are related to their uses and select appropriate materials.
    - The properties of polymers depend on what monomers they are made from and the conditions under which they are made. For example, low density (LD) and high density (HD) poly(ethene) are produced from ethene.
      - Suggested Activity:
        Observe everyday examples of LH and HD polymers to deduce their properties and structure
        Equipment Required:
        cleaned out examples of high and low density plastics, as below or similar:
        
        Low density:
        milk carton
        food packaging
        clingfilm
        carrier bags
        plastic fizzy drink bottle
        
        high density:
        hard plastics (trays)
        pens
        drink bottle
    - Thermosoftening polymers melt when they are heated. Thermosetting polymers do not melt when they are heated.
    - Students should be able to explain how low density and high density poly(ethene) are both produced from ethene.
    - Students should be able to explain the difference between thermosoftening and thermosetting polymers in terms of their structures.